Conference Agenda

This paper discusses sufficient academic qualifications for successful teacher studies in a second language. Language proficiency is generally regarded as an undisputed prerequisite for university studies. Following the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR, 2001), most Finnish universities require certified CEFR level B2 as the entry level in Finnish degree programs. However, according to the Finnish Decree on Qualification Requirements for Teaching Staff (Finlex 986/1998), teachers in basic and pre-primary education are required to have “excellent language proficiency”, which has been interpreted as the highest C2 level in CEFR. Similar requirements are used in other European countries as well (e.g. Fuková, 2025, 157). It is therefore noteworthy that as a language proficiency threshold, B2 is low in relation to legislation and alreadyincludes the assumption that the students’ language proficiency will accumulate to level C1 or even C2 during academic studies. Accepting students with B2 level can thus be seen as a sign of educational optimism from the society. It also reflects the value of universalism in education (see Schwartz et al., 2012).

Recently, the acute need for qualified teachers has increased aspirations for teacher education internationally (Boström et al., 2025). In Finland, the shortage concerns specifically teachers in early childhood education and care (ECEC). As one solution, Finnish universities are allocated temporary funding for experimental programmes with language support. These programmes are aimed at students with elementary knowledge in the language of instruction, for improving language skills in the language of instruction (Finnish/Swedish) and simultaneously studying some of the key contents of their future field of study. This study was carried out in a 10-month-long language-supported pilot program in ECEC teacher studies. The studies included both Finnish language and contents of basic studies in early childhood education qualification. During the 10 months ofstudy, the students complete basic studies in early childhood education (25 ECTS credits), and 20 credits ofFinnish language. The participants who have no previous Finnish secondary level degree, will also execute theNational Certificate of Language Proficiency (YKI) test, and their aim is to achieve a score of 4 (B2) in all four subtests.

This case study aims to structure the concept of sufficient academic language skills for university studies in education. Language skills are measurable – such as syntactic and morphosyntactic understanding, speaking fluency, writing skills, or vocabulary width (e.g. Juan & Flor, 2006) – but on the other hand, language proficiency also consists of a set of strategic skills that are harder to define and measure (Macaro, 2006). Strategies include for example the ability focus, ask for targeted support, and rely on the affordances available. In addition, academic language skills for ECEC studies may be something that we do not fully perceive at the starting point of the study.

Our research question is twofold: How do the programme educators versus programme students assess the participating students’ ability to succeed in academic studies? How does the students’ self-assessment relate to the results of syntactic analysis made from their texts, and from the result of the YKI test? Our goal is to find and highlight differences between the educators’ and students’ views. We also compare the assessments made by human participants and the authorized testing tool, YKI.

The results are interpreted in a framework that is formed between the abovementioned three factors: the value-based idea of accessibility of higher education, the evidence-based fact of teacher shortage, and the legislation-based (high) threshold for language proficiency for teaching profession. The results also relate with the phenomenon of immigrant optimism (Kao & Tienda, 1995) and general faith in education.

Across many education systems, substitute teachers have become an essential yet structurally marginal workforce. In Taiwan, demographic decline and flexible staffing policies have intensified schools’ reliance on substitute teachers, including those without formal teaching certification. Despite their increasing presence, substitute teachers often experience unstable employment conditions, ambiguous authority, and limited institutional support, raising critical questions about how teacher professionalism is constructed under precarity.

Existing studies have examined substitute teachers’ job satisfaction and working conditions (Glaveli et al., 2023; Schkolenko, 2018), as well as early-career substitute teachers’ adaptation within formal teacher education systems (Chang, 2010; Kuo, 2023). However, less attention has been paid to how substitute teachers themselves interpret institutional constraints and actively negotiate professional action in everyday school life. Responding to the ECER 2026 theme Knowing and Acting: The Changing Conditions and Potentials of Education Research, this study explores how professional knowledge and action emerge within institutional gaps.

This paper addresses the following research questions:
(1) How do substitute teachers interpret their professional roles and responsibilities within different institutional contexts?
(2) How do administrative arrangements, assessment practices, and inter-teacher relations shape substitute teachers’ meaning-making processes?
(3) How does substitute teachers’ structural mobility influence their professional agency and decision-making?

The study adopts an interpretive and meaning-oriented theoretical framework, viewing teacher professionalism as a situated and negotiated process rather than a fixed outcome of certification. Drawing on perspectives of teacher identity, institutional precarity, and professional agency, the paper conceptualizes substitute teachers as actors who continuously interpret, adapt to, and sometimes resist institutional arrangements.

By focusing on substitute teachers’ lived experiences and reflexive interpretations, this study contributes to international discussions on teacher professionalism, educational inequality, and governance. It foregrounds how professional knowing and acting are shaped within incomplete institutional structures and highlights the transformative potential of research that takes marginal educational actors seriously.

Teacher certification and licensure systems globally, including across the United States, Europe, and Australia, share common goals of ensuring teacher quality but face persistent challenges related to entry barriers, uneven preparation quality, and the design of incentives to attract and retain effective teachers, especially in hard‑to‑staff schools and subjects (Mesquita & Rivas, 2016; Mihai, 2020; Witte et al., 2010). Across contexts, policy debates increasingly center on balancing regulatory standards with flexibility, alternative pathways, and incentive structures that expand supply without undermining instructional quality (King & Yin, 2022; Liu et al., 2018; Zhang & Wang, 2022). This funded study of unlicensed teachers working in Houston, TX, USA schools is designed to understand the challenges and incentives facing diverse teachers working across a wide range of urban and suburban schools and how recent changes have impacted teachers’ perspectives and priorities in pursuing teacher licensure. This qualitative study of teacher interviews aims to provide relevant and personal perspectives to a large- scale issue of teacher quality that is part of the overall “poly-crisis” in educational equity and excellence. We ask the research question, “What challenges and incentives impact diverse educators’ ability to become licensed teachers and remain in the profession?”

Challenges to certification and licensure

A central challenge globally is that formal training and certification requirements can unintentionally restrict the supply of qualified teachers, particularly in high‑need areas (Ingersoll, 2007; King & Yin, 2022; Sutcher et al., 2016). Analyses of U.S. policy reforms suggest that extensive coursework and rigid program structures may deter potential entrants and push systems toward greater reliance on minimally prepared or uncertified teachers, especially in disadvantaged schools (Ingersoll, 2007; Liu et al., 2018). European reviews similarly highlight that existing regulatory frameworks often fail to create strong incentives for teachers or schools (Eurydice, 2013; Loureiro et al., 2023).

Alternative certification has emerged as a policy response to shortages and the high costs and perceived inflexibility of traditional programs (Liu et al., 2018; Sutcher et al., 2016). In Germany and other European countries such as Sweden, Switzerland, and Denmark, alternative certification programs have been implemented to combat teacher shortages and have begun recruiting professionals or graduates from different professional fields to fill the high demand for teachers (Birch, et al., 2018; Lucksnat, et al., 2022). Studies comparing traditionally and alternatively certified teachers find differences in motives for entry, well‑being, and intentions to remain, raising concerns that some alternative programs may prioritize rapid entry over sustained professional growth and retention (Birch, et al., 2018; Zhang & Wang, 2022).

Incentives for recruitment, retention, and development

Financial and career incentives play a growing role in teacher certification policy, particularly in addressing shortages in challenging schools and subjects. A systematic review of international evidence finds that targeted financial incentives—such as bonuses, bursaries, loan forgiveness, or salary supplements—can be effective in attracting teachers to hard‑to‑staff contexts, although their effects on long‑term retention are less consistent (Mihai, 2020). Broader analyses of European and international systems emphasize that incentives must extend beyond entry bonuses to include coherent compensation structures, promotion linked to meaningful professional development, and supportive working conditions that make staying in the profession attractive (Eurydice, 2013; Loureiro et al., 2023; Liu & Lu, 2023). Across both the United States and Europe, the literature converges on the importance of integrating certification policy with robust, well‑designed incentive systems that address not only who enters teaching, but also how teachers are supported and rewarded across their careers (Mihai, 2020; Loureiro et al., 2023; Sutcher et al., 2016).