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17 SES 13 A: Language, Literacy, Nation Building and Internationalism in the History of Education
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17. Histories of Education
Paper Changing hierarchies of language. Nation building and minority languages in schools: The South Tyrol and Sápmi cases. 1: Norges Arktiske Universitet; 2: University of Urbino Carlo Bo Presenting Author:The 20th century represents a pivotal era for the consolidation of the nation-state in Europe, a process frequently predicated on the ideal of “one nation, one language”. This proposal investigates the school system as a primary instrument of nation-building and linguistic homogenization, focusing on two distinct contexts: South Tyrol in Italy and Sápmi (the Norwegian side). If early historiography often analysed these regions through the lens of security policy (Eriksen & Niemi, 1981), recent scholarship emphasises the long-term structural impact of these policies on identity and social cohesion. As highlighted by the recent Norwegian Truth and Reconciliation Commission Report (2023), the legacy of “Norwegianization” (Fornorsking) constitutes an ongoing challenge in education, paralleling the complex memory work described by Grote and Obermair (2017) regarding South Tyrol’s transformation from a borderland of conflict to a model of autonomy. The research question of our paper is: How did educational policies in Italy and Norway during the 20th century actively construct and subsequently deconstruct linguistic hierarchies in South Tyrol and Sápmi? How were schools utilised as sites of “internal colonialism” (Hechter, 1975) to marginalise minority languages (German/Ladins and Sami) and impose the national language? What pedagogical mechanisms were employed to stigmatize the minority language, effectively devaluing its “linguistic capital” (Bourdieu, 1991)? How contemporary model shifted in Norway and in South Tyrol? The primary objective is to trace the evolution of the “hierarchy of languages”. In the early 20th century, the national language was positioned at the apex, associated with modernity and loyalty, while minority languages were relegated to the bottom. The paper aims to demonstrate how this hierarchy was rigidified during totalitarian or nationalist phases - specifically the Fascist Italianization and the strict Fornorsking - and how it was reshaped by post-war democratic reforms. The analysis relies on a comparative historical approach underpinned by sociolinguistic theories of power, particularly Gellner's (1983) notion of nation-building, which views the school as the infrastructure for manufacturing national consciousness. Equally important is the Linguistic Capital: Utilising Bourdieu (1991), the paper analyses how the state devalued the mother tongue, rendering it useless for social mobility. Finally, we will use the concept of Internal Colonialism: This framework explains center-periphery dynamics, contrasting the Sami experience as an indigenous people with South Tyroleans as a national minority. Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used This project adopts a comparative transnational history approach. By juxtaposing the Italian and Norwegian cases, the research moves beyond isolated national historiographies to identify common patterns of assimilation and distinct models of conflict resolution. The study focuses on three key chronological phases: Hard Assimilation: The Fascist “Lex Gentile” and the ban on German-speaking in Italy; the intensification of the Norwegian Education Act and boarding school policies in Sápmi. Transition and Resistance: The struggle for the implementation of the Gruber-De Gasperi Agreement in Italy; the rise of Sami political consciousness. Institutionalization of Rights: The Second Autonomy Statute in South Tyrol and the establishment of the Sami Parliament. The research is grounded in a analysis of primary and secondary sources, namely: Archival Documents: Analysis of school curricula, ministerial circulars, and inspection reports from the Archivio di Stato di Bolzano and the Riksarkivet (Oslo). Special attention is paid to directives banning mother tongues in boarding houses, corroborated by findings in the Sannhets- og forsoningskommisjonen (2023) report. Educational Materials: Comparative analysis of textbooks to examine how the “other” was represented. For the Italian case, this is informed by Carlà’s (2020) insights on how inter-ethnic peace is narrated - or silenced - in the classroom. Oral History: Utilization of diaries and memoirs to reconstruct the lived experience of linguistic trauma. The project compares narratives from the South Tyrolean Katakombenschulen with Sami boarding school experiences, focusing on the psychological impact of prohibited language use. Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings The paper is expected to reveal that while the intent of nation-building was similar in both Italy and Norway (homogenization), the outcomes diverged due to different external pressures. In South Tyrol, the hierarchy was flattened through a “separatist” school model (schools divided by language groups), a compromise driven by international diplomacy (Steininger, 2003). In contrast, the Sami experience moved towards an “integrative” model of revitalization within a unified system, driven by the global Indigenous rights discourse rather than bilateral diplomacy. Outcomes The paper provides a nuanced understanding of how schools function as political battlegrounds where hierarchies of citizenship are enforced. By analyzing historical failures in assimilation through the lens of recent Truth and Reconciliation processes, the study offers insights for contemporary debates on multilingual education. It highlights that legal recognition alone is insufficient without addressing the “shadow of the state” in educational practices. References Augschöll Blasbicher A. (2025). Novecento anni di istituzionalizzazione dell’istruzione “inferiore” in Alto Adige. Lecce: Pensa Multimedia. Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and Symbolic Power. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Carlà, A. (2020). Peace in South Tyrol and the Limits of Consociationalism. Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 26(3), 245–262. Di Michele, A. (2008). L'italianizzazione imperfetta. L'amministrazione pubblica dell'Alto Adige tra Italia liberale e fascismo. Alessandria: Edizioni dell'Orso. Eriksen, K. E., & Niemi, E. (1981). Den finske fare. Sikkerhetsproblemer og minoritetspolitikk i nord 1860–1940. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. Gellner, E. (1983). Nations and Nationalism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Grote, G., & Obermair, H. (2017). A Land on the Threshold: South Tyrolean Transformations, 1915–2015. Oxford: Peter Lang. Hechter, M. (1975). Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development. Berkeley: University of California Press. Hermanstrand, H., Kolberg, A., Nilssen, T. R., & Sem, L. (Eds.). (2019). The Indigenous Identity of the South Saami: Historical and Political Perspectives on a Minority within a Minority. Springer. Kortekangas, O. (2121). Language, Citizenship, and Sámi Education in the Nordic North, 1900 – 1940. London – Chicago: Mc Gill-Queen’s University Press. Minde, H. (2005). Assimilation of the Sami – Implementation and Consequences. Acta Borealia, 22(2), 121–146. Olsen, T. A., & Sollid, H. (Eds.). (2022). Indigenising Education and Citizenship: Perspectives on Policies and Practices From Sápmi and Beyond. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press. Alber, E. (2021). South Tyrol’s Model of Conflict Resolution: Territorial Autonomy and Power Sharing. In Power-Sharing in Europe (pp. 171–199). Palgrave Macmillan. Sannhets- og forsoningskommisjonen. (2023). Sannhet og forsoning – grunnlag for et oppgjør med fornorskingspolitikk og urett mot samer, kvener/norskfinner og skogfinner (Dokument 19 (2022–2023)). Stortinget. Steininger, R. (2003). South Tyrol: A Minority Conflict of the Twentieth Century. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers. 17. Histories of Education
Paper Knowledge and Practice in Foreign Language Teaching from Women's Perspective Eötvös Loránd University, Hungary Presenting Author:The paper examines the emergence of English language teaching in Hungary during the interwar period from a women’s history perspective, with a particular focus on the relationship between knowledge and practice. The study explores, among other aspects, how professional knowledge related to foreign language education was produced, institutionalised, and transformed into pedagogical practice within a historically and socially defined, yet gender-structured educational context. The interwar period in Hungary was marked by profound political, social, and cultural changes that significantly affected the education system and the teaching profession. Within this context, the teaching of English gained increasing importance, while the feminisation of the profession and the gradual loss of teacher autonomy contributed to processes of deprofessionalisation. English language teaching is approached as a field in which the acquisition and application of professional knowledge were closely interconnected. At the same time, institutional and political conditions substantially restricted the professional scope of action of female educators. Women thus occupied an ambivalent position as both transmitters of pedagogical knowledge and subordinated actors within the educational system. The presentation addresses three main research questions: (1) How is pedagogical and social knowledge related to English language teaching represented in Hungarian secondary-school English textbooks published between the two World Wars, with particular attention to the portrayal of female roles? (2) What expectations and role conceptions were conveyed through these textbooks? (3) What contradictions can be identified between broader social changes and textbooks as well as teaching practices? Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used The primary research method is document analysis, drawing on sources from the National Pedagogical Library and Museum. Special emphasis is placed on the analysis of contemporary Hungarian secondary-school English language textbooks and readers, complemented by an examination of educational policy documents and teacher training regulations. Textbooks are analysed not only as teaching aids but also as institutionalised forms of knowledge that mediate between academic discourses, educational policy, and everyday classroom practice. The analysis focuses on representations of female roles, social norms, and professional expectations in both textual and visual content. Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings Preliminary findings suggest that although international reform movements and social changes influenced the content of English language textbooks, representations of gender roles remained largely conservative. This tension between social transformation and educational practice highlights the limited professional agency available to female teachers within the profession. The paper argues that historical research on education contributes to contemporary educational research debates by uncovering the historical and social conditions shaping the production and use of knowledge. References Abbott, A. (1988). The system of professions: An essay on the division of expert labor. University of Chicago Press. Apple, M. W. (2014). Official knowledge: Democratic education in a conservative age. Routledge. Blumberg, R. L. (2008). The invisible obstacle to educational equality: Gender bias in textbooks. Prospects, 38(3), 345–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-009-9086-1 Etzioni, A. (1969). The semi-professions and their organisation. The Free Press. Freidson, E. (2001). Professionalism: the third logic. Polity Press. Horlacher, R. (2015). The educated subject and the German concept of Bildung. Routledge. Németh, A. (2012). Magyar pedagógusképzés és pedagógus szakmai tudásformák I. 1775–1945. ELTE Eötvös Kiadó. O’Keeffe, L. (2013). A framework for textbook analysis. International Education Studies, 6(10), 69–76. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v6n10p69 Pingel, F. (2010). UNESCO guidebook on textbook research and textbook revision (2nd ed.). UNESCO. Pukánszky, B. (2013) A nőnevelés története. Gondolat. Pukánszky, B. and Németh, A. (1996). Neveléstörténet. Nemzeti Tankönyvkiadó. Rischardson, W. (2019). Method in the History of Education. In Rury, J. L., & Tamura, E. H. (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of History of Education (pp.48–69). Oxford University Press. Young, M. (1958). The rise of the meritocracy 1870–2033: an essay on education and equality Thames & Hudson. Westberg, J. (2025). Historical Methods in Educational Research: Sources, Contextualization, Periodisation and Analysis. Paedagogica Historica. https://doi.org/10.1080/00309230.2025.2473704 17. Histories of Education
Paper Developing Reading Literacy through Text Analysis 1: AEO "Nazarbayev Intellectual School of Pavlodar", Kazakhstan; 2: AEO "Nazarbayev Intellectual School of Karagandy", Kazakhstan; 3: AEO "Center of Excellence in NIS" Presenting Author:RESEARCH QUESTION How can the reading literacy of upper secondary school students be developed through the analysis of historical texts and sources in History of Kazakhstan lessons? AIM OF THE STUDY The aim of this study is to enhance the reading literacy of upper secondary school students by systematically integrating text analysis methods into History of Kazakhstan lessons, as well as to develop students’ critical thinking and source evaluation skills. CONCEPTUAL / THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Reading literacy is understood as a complex and functional competence that goes beyond basic text comprehension. It involves the ability to locate information, evaluate its credibility, interpret meaning, and apply knowledge in various real-life and academic contexts (OECD, 2019a; Kauppinen, 2010; Deng, 2023). Within the PISA framework, reading literacy is conceptualised as a foundational skill that enables learners to engage critically with written information, construct meaning, and make reasoned judgments. Consequently, the development of reading literacy has a direct impact on students’ academic success, critical thinking abilities, and lifelong learning capacities. Recent international assessments indicate that the reading literacy performance of 15-year-old students in Kazakhstan remains below the OECD average (Ashimbayev, 2024). PISA findings reveal that many students experience difficulties in understanding complex texts, analysing historical sources, and evaluating the reliability and significance of information. These challenges hinder students’ ability to develop higher-order thinking skills and limit their preparedness for further education and active citizenship. The theoretical foundation of this study draws on two interrelated perspectives. The first is Critical Thinking Theory (Bloom, 1956; Paul & Elder, 2014), which emphasises analysis, evaluation, comparison of perspectives, identification of bias, and evidence-based reasoning. In history education, these skills are particularly important, as students encounter multiple interpretations of past events and must learn to assess the validity of diverse historical narratives. The second perspective is Functional Reading Literacy, as defined by the PISA framework. This approach highlights the application of textual information in authentic contexts and the interpretation of various types of texts, including historical documents, academic texts, and visual or multimodal sources. In History of Kazakhstan lessons, functional reading literacy involves working with primary and secondary sources, identifying key ideas, understanding historical context, and critically evaluating the reliability of information. In addition, the learning characteristics of contemporary students must be considered. The widespread use of social media platforms such as TikTok and YouTube, which prioritise short and visually engaging content, has contributed to a decline in students’ motivation to read extended academic texts. This trend negatively affects students’ concentration, deep reading skills, and analytical engagement with texts. Therefore, history education requires pedagogical approaches that actively involve students in meaningful text-based inquiry and structured analysis. Based on these considerations, the conceptual framework of this study is grounded in the assumption that reading literacy can be effectively developed through systematic text analysis and critical evaluation of historical sources. By embedding structured analytical methods into history lessons, students are encouraged to move beyond memorisation towards interpretation, evaluation, and argumentation supported by evidence. This approach aligns with ECER’s emphasis on research-informed teaching practices and learner-centred pedagogy. Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used The study employed a mixed-methods approach and was conducted in an upper secondary school context. The participants were 11th-grade students, while empirical data were collected during 10th-grade History of Kazakhstan lessons. A total of 60 students participated in the study. Data collection took place over one academic year. The research instruments included diagnostic and follow-up surveys, classroom-based experimental lessons, and written assessment tasks. The initial survey, administered at the beginning of the academic year, aimed to identify students’ perceived difficulties in understanding historical texts and analysing sources. Quantitative data from the survey were complemented by qualitative observations during classroom activities. The findings of the initial survey indicated that 50% of students experienced difficulties in comprehending historical texts, while 60% reported challenges in analysing historical sources. In addition, results from an external summative assessment (IGCSE) showed that only 51% of students were able to evaluate the significance and reliability of given historical sources. These results pointed to insufficient development of students’ analytical and critical thinking skills. To address these challenges, two main instructional strategies were systematically integrated into history lessons: SWOT analysis and fact checking. SWOT analysis was used to examine historical events by identifying strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Students analysed internal factors such as political fragmentation, economic underdevelopment, and social inequality, as well as external opportunities and threats influencing historical processes. This method enabled students to perceive historical events as complex and interconnected phenomena. Fact checking was applied as a research-oriented method aimed at verifying the accuracy, credibility, and reliability of historical information. Students compared primary and secondary sources, academic publications, official documents, and independent sources to evaluate the validity of historical claims. Through this process, students developed skills in evidence-based reasoning and source evaluation. Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings The combined application of SWOT analysis and fact checking significantly enhanced students’ engagement with historical texts and sources. Rather than merely describing historical events, students demonstrated an increased ability to analyse, interpret, and justify their conclusions using evidence. The follow-up survey conducted at the end of the academic year revealed notable improvements. Sixty-five percent of students demonstrated improved text comprehension skills, while 70% showed progress in analysing historical sources. These findings confirm the effectiveness of the selected instructional strategies and highlight the importance of their consistent and systematic implementation. Furthermore, summative assessment results indicated a positive trend. While students’ data analysis skills were assessed at 50% during the first semester, this figure increased to 70% by the end of the second semester. These outcomes suggest that sustained exposure to text analysis and source evaluation methods contributes to the development of reading literacy and critical thinking. Based on the positive results, it is planned to extend the implementation of these methods to lower secondary levels, starting from Grade 7. This vertical alignment is expected to support the gradual and continuous development of students’ reading literacy skills. The findings of this study demonstrate that the systematic integration of text analysis methods into History of Kazakhstan lessons can significantly improve students’ reading literacy and critical thinking abilities. SWOT analysis and fact checking proved to be effective tools for fostering deeper engagement with historical texts and developing evidence-based reasoning. These methods represent a promising approach to improving the quality of teaching and learning in humanities subjects and are consistent with ECER’s emphasis on research-informed educational practice. References Ashimbayev, M. (2024). Education quality and PISA results in Kazakhstan. Astana: National Analytical Center. Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. New York: Longman. Deng, C. (2023). Reading literacy development in secondary education. Beijing: Educational Research Press. Kauppinen, M. (2010). Reading literacy as a functional skill. Journal of Educational Studies, 45(3), 215–229. OECD. (2019a). PISA 2018 assessment and analytical framework. Paris: OECD Publishing. Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2014). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your learning and your life. Boston: Pearson. 17. Histories of Education
Paper Kemény Ferenc and International Education around 1900 The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong S.A.R. (China) Presenting Author:Kemény Ferenc (or François/Franz Kemény), a teacher and secondary school director from Hungary, was a leading representative of international education in the decades prior to the First World War. World exhibitions with their various international congresses on education and the Universal Peace Congresses served as his activist home. Moreover, Kemény was a promoter of the modern Olympic movement. Although he was a one of the most prolific writers on the subject in French, German and Hungarian, scholarship in history of education so far has paid only marginal attention to Kemény. By tracing the activities of this Hungarian educator, this contribution sharpens our understanding of what international education meant around 1900.
Kemény saw the need for institutions dealing with education on an international level. In 1900, he came up with various ideas. An international union of educators (Weltvereinigung der Professoren) should bring educational professionals of different countries closer together and secure their corporate interests beyond borders. An international bureau of education (Bureau pédagogique international et permanent) should coordinate education internationally and liaise with national governments in view of enabling student exchanges, recognition of diplomas, etc. Kemény even presented the bold project of a comprehensive institution that would coordinate the knowledge from all disciplinary fields from all parts of the world. With this world academy (Weltakademie), as he termed it, Kemény (unsuccessfully) auto-nominated himself for the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1905, he pleaded for a multilingual international and official educational journal. Together with other European educators and pacifists, Kemény became a leading member of the International Peace Bureau’s commission on international education which turned into a major platform and think tank for educational change in the direction of internationalism.
Some of Kemény’s ideas were soon put in practice, at least partially. He became a pillar of the Bureau international de documentation éducative founded by Edward Peeters in Oostende in 1909 and its journal Minerva: Revue d’éducation internationale et polyglotte. Kemény also participated in the preparations for a first intergovernmental congress on education scheduled for September 1914 but not held for evident reasons. With support from the Dutch government, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Edwin Ginn’s World Peace Foundation and the American School Peace League, the congress was supposed to result in the creation of an International Council of Education. For the event, Kemény published the booklet L’enseignement international. Histoire, état actuel, avenir which he considered a vademecum for the congress but which would eventually become a testament of the pre-war movement for international education.
After the outbreak of the First World War, Kemény soon shifted his support towards a German-dominated Mitteleuropa. Still, the focus on Kemény provides fresh empirical insight on emerging debates on international education between the 1890s and 1914. After WWI, new inititatives launched by the League of Nations or the International Bureau of Education could build on these earlier experiences. Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used This historical paper is based on the numerous publications authored by Kemény in French and German. It also draws on the archives of the International Peace Bureau preserved in the United Nations Libraries and Archives in Geneva which include a variety of letters received from Kemény. In terms of methods, the contribution is based on a close reading of these source materials. Moreover, the research builds on a prosopographic approach carried out with the help of a Fichoz database operated with the software Filemaker.Pro. Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings In short, this contribution: - re-introduces Kemény Ferenc as a forgotten but central educator of the early twentieth century. - traces the educational debates of the Universal Peace Congresses. - elucidates the networks and debates on international education in the decades before the First World War. - evidences that important foundations for interwar educational internationalism were laid in the pre-WWI period. References BARIETY, Jacques, FLEURY, Antoine (eds), Mouvements et initiatives de paix dans la politique internationale 1867-1928, Berne, Peter Lang, 1987. BONZON, Thierry, REMY, Fabre, GUIEU, Jean-Michel, RAPOPORT, Michel, MARCOBELLI, Elisa (eds), Les défenseurs de la paix, 1899-1917, Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2018. COOPER, Sandi E., Patriotic Pacifism: Waging War on War in Europe, 1815-1914, New York, Oxford University Press, 1991. GOOD, Katie Day, Bring the World to the Child: Technologies of Global Citizenship in American Education, Cambridge, MIT Press, 2020. HOFSTETTER, Rita (ed.), Le Bureau international d’éducation, matrice de l’internationalisme éducatif (premier 20e siècle). Pour une charte des aspirations mondiales en matière éducative, Peter Lang, 2022. HOFSTETTER, Rita, DROUX, Joëlle (eds), L’internationalisme éducatif entre débats et combats (1919-1939), Berne, Peter Lang, 2020 IHALAINEN, Pasi, HOLMILA, Antero (eds), Nationalism and Internationalism Intertwined: A European History of Concepts Beyond the Nation State, New York, Berghahn, 2022. LECHNER, Elmar (ed.), Franz Kemény (1860-1944). Ein pädagogischer Internationalist ungarischer Provenienz: eine Auswahl aus seinen Schriften, Klagenfurt, Abteilung für Historische und Vergleichende Pädagogik, Universität Klagenfurt, 2000. RETTER, Hein, “Eduard Sprangers Beziehungen zu Ungarn. Der Briefwechsel mit Kemeny, Kornis u. Prohaszka”, in: Pädagogische Rundschau, 41, 3, 1987, p. 313-325. RICHTER, Max, “What Is a ‘World Academy’?: Franz Kemény and the Early Nobel Prize’s Infrastructures”, in: Journal of World Literature, 9, 1, 2024, p. 80-99. ROTBERG, Robert I., A Leadership for Peace: How Edwin Ginn Tried to Change the World, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 2007. SLUGA, Glenda, Internationalism in the Age of Nationalism, Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013. | ||