Conference Agenda

This paper aims to shed light on teachers’ reflections on the need for and access to bilingual support for students in language immersion programs in Finland. Through the perceptions of teachers from ECEC level to ninth grade, including special education teachers, an insight is given to existing bilingual support structures in language immersion in Finland.

Language immersion is an established education programme in Finland, where two national languages (Swedish and Finnish) are used as languages of instruction to students who belong to the language majority. The programme starts at the age of 3–5 and continues to grade nine. The immersion language is the language of instruction in ECEC and preschool, and decreases gradually in school, while the pupils' first language increases as language of instruction. Additional languages are also introduced during the early school years, and language immersion in Finland is usually referred to as a multilingual education programme (Björklund, 2019).

As linguistic diversity is an increasing phenomenon in many educational institutions, the bi- and multilingualism of individual students is slowly gaining ground as both a right and a valuable resource (cf. Ruiz, 1984) to be considered also in monolingually based school systems. A multilingualism-as-a-resource perspective must, however, provide pedagogical solutions that promote bi- and multilingualism for all students, also struggling students and students with special education needs (SEN). At present, there is a shared concern about e.g., education specialists not being sufficiently informed about what bilingual acquisition entails, the lack of appropriate assessment tools for bilingual students and difficulties in early identification between language delays (stemming from a simultaneous acquisition of two languages) and diagnosed disability (Nic Aindriú et al., 2020; Wise & Chen, 2015). These approaches towards bi- and multilingualism in school are under-researched and needs to be addressed. The relatively scarce research conducted in this field point out the importance of bilingual support structures for successful language immersion (Barrett et al., 2020; Ó Ceallaigh & Ní Shéaghdha, 2023; Tedick & Lyster, 2020), since students learn through a second language and they need to learn the academic language in two languages. Equivalent studies on the needs for provision of bilingual support from the Finnish context have yet not been published. Therefore, this paper maps the current situation in Swedish immersion to see what pedagogical interventions and solutions are used when teachers in Swedish immersion find that there is a need for extra support for individual students and how this support relates to pedagogy and policy in language immersion.

The paper is part of a larger research project, ProSpectS, that studies leadership, teacher supervision, and support for learning in language immersion programs in Finland. The research objectives focus on the experiences of ECEC leaders, principals, special education teachers, student teachers, and teachers in ECEC (children aged 3–5), preschool (children aged 6), and basic education (students aged 7–15).

In this explorative study we focus on teachers in language immersion and their views on the needs of and the provision of language supported pedagogy for immersion students’ emerging bilingualism/developing bilingualism. As part of the broader project, this paper addresses the following two RQs:

1. What language supportive pedagogy is employed by the teachers of the study to give students access to bilingual support?

1. What types of support for (bilingual) learning in language immersion is needed according to the teachers of the study?

This paper reports on a comparative study undertaken with student teachers in the Irish and Basque immersion education sectors. The study aims to explore the interplay of linguistic repertoires, language ideologies, and affect in the professional identity development of these pre-service teachers. Immersion education is recognised internationally as a key site for the protection and revitalisation of minoritised languages. Immersion schools, where all subjects are taught through the medium of the target language, can play an important role both in maintaining existing minoritised language communities and in fostering new communities of active speakers. Teachers in minoritised language immersion settings can be seen to have a unique perspective on decoloniality in education as their daily praxis challenges linguistic power structures (Neville, 2024). Furthermore, as European contexts grow increasingly diverse, immersion programmes can help to sustain linguistic heritage while also promoting multilingualism.

Basque (Euskara) is a pre-Indo-European language spoken in a region straddling France and Spain. This study focuses on the Basque Autonomous Community (BAC) in Spain, where Basque has co-official status with Spanish and serves as a vehicular language in the education system (Pérez-Izaguirre, Châteaureynaud & van der Worp, 2025). Since the early 1980s, the BAC has offered three models of schooling: model A or Spanish-medium; model B or bilingual; and model D or Basque-medium. Model D has seen a remarkable growth in popularity and the Basque immersion model is now the majority choice in the region.

Irish (Gaeilge), a Celtic language, is the first official language of Ireland, although only a minority of the population report speaking Irish daily (1.3% according to the 2022 National Census). The language has core status as a subject in the national curriculum, although this status has become increasingly contested (Murray et al., 2021) and has not led to success in reversing the language shift towards English. However, the immersion education sector, where all subjects are taught through Irish, has experienced rapid growth in recent decades, particularly in regions where the language does not have a strong community presence (Mac Gearailt, Mac Ruairc & Murray, 2021).

In both these contexts, immersion education has been key to maintaining a minoritised language, although to differing degrees of success. Both contexts are also experiencing a rapid diversification of population due to migration, with an associated increase in multilingualism. This demographic shift is transforming the school populations in both contexts and placing new demands on teachers in their commitment to multilingualism and minoritised language education. Despite this, little research exists on how teachers navigate the intersection of language and emotion in these socio-linguistically complex environments.

This study investigates how student teachers experience and negotiate their evolving identities as minoritised language speakers, learners, and future educators, exploring the affective dimensions—particularly language anxiety and enjoyment—that shape their professional trajectories and commitment to immersion education. The theoretical framing of the study draws on the concept of Spracherleben (Busch, 2017) or the lived experience of language, as this allows for a conceptualisation of linguistic repertoire that encompasses a speaker’s emotional and embodied experiences with language (Iversen, 2022). The study’s overarching research questions ask:

‘what is the role of emotion in the lived experience of pre-service teachers in the Irish and Basque immersion education sectors?’

‘how can teacher educators support these pre-service teachers in negotiating the intersection of language and emotion?’

Through providing empirical data on the intersection of linguistic and emotional identity in these minoritised language contexts, we aim to create pedagogical resources that can be adapted by teacher educators in other European regions where minoritised languages, majority languages, and heritage languages co-exist in communities and schools.

As Ireland has become more culturally diverse in recent years (CSO, 2025), the provision of classes for English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) learners has become more important in Adult Education. Part of this increase has come about due to the commitment of Ireland to the European Refugee Resettlement Programme in 2015 (Gov of Ireland, 2019) and Ireland’s continued commitment to the EU’s migration policy (UNHCR, 2024). Since the launch of the Adult Literacy for Life Strategy in 2021 (SOLAS, 2021), ESOL has been a critical pillar of Adult Education. Due to the increase in state-funded provision, many ESOL tutors have moved into this space from private provision but often have little experience working in supporting learners affected by displacement and potential trauma. Existing research notes the link between refugee trauma and difficulties in second language acquisition (Ní Ghráinne, 2024), but there is a need for more research focusing on the learner voice within the Irish context to inform practice, such as that recently carried out by Quirke et al. (2025) as part of the development of a new ESOL Strategy by government.

This study was carried out to gain the perspectives of learners on their ESOL provision and language learning since arriving in the country, with a specific focus on students with a refugee background, and what these learners identify as the best practices in this provision, as well as the most challenging practices. The researchers also hoped through these conversations to gain some perspectives on what would constitute more effective, trauma-sensitive pedagogy. While the subject of refugee trauma affecting language learning was a major point of interest of the researchers, the topic could not be addressed directly without introducing bias into the results.

The objective was to centre learner experience and use this to generate practical recommendations for best classroom practice and potentially inform future policy in this sector. The theoretical framework aimed to integrate the principles of trauma-informed practice, which emphasises safety, trust and empowerment, with the student-centred, humanist pedagogy found in literacy centres currently, so that the focus is not purely on linguistic improvement but on learners’ well-being and integration into their new communities. This literacy lens contrasts positively with more traditional, purely structural or communicative language teaching in terms of its specific relevance to learners with a refugee background. A universal precautionary approach, often used in literacy work, applies principles of accessible design, multimodal instruction, and scaffolded support, on the assumption that some learners may have hidden difficulties, without slowing down those who don't. This naturally extends to ESOL provision for those with a refugee background. When paired with trauma-informed practice, this approach promotes psychological safety and predictable routines, which benefit all learners but is especially key for those managing trauma, aligning with the aims of the European Agenda for Adult Learning (NEAAL 2030).

As artificial intelligence (AI) becomes embedded in national education systems, teachers’ engagement with AI is increasingly shaped by policy mandates rather than voluntary professional choice (Miao et al., 2021; Williamson & Eynon, 2020). This institutionalization of AI has accelerated rapidly, yet empirical studies show that many middle school English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers—especially those in under-resourced regions—remain hesitant to adopt AI tools in their teaching (An et al., 2023; Huang et al., 2023). This creates a central tension in contemporary educational reform: while AI is promoted as essential for improving instruction, teachers often experience its introduction as risky, uncertain, and externally imposed.

Most existing studies on teachers’ AI adoption rely on self-reported survey data and behavioral intention models such as the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) (Venkatesh et al., 2003; Venkatesh, 2022). While UTAUT provides a powerful framework for explaining adoption intentions, it assumes that individuals make largely rational and autonomous decisions (Venkatesh et al., 2003). This assumption is increasingly problematic in policy-driven environments, where teachers’ behavior may be shaped less by intention than by institutional pressure, uncertainty, and perceived risk (Williamson & Eynon, 2020). There is therefore a growing need for approaches that can capture how teachers actually behave when confronted with mandated technological change.

This study addresses this gap by examining whether nudge-based interventions can create a low-risk pathway for teachers to begin engaging with AI. Nudge theory focuses on how subtle changes in choice architecture—such as defaults, goal-setting, reminders, and feedback—can alter behavior without restricting options or imposing sanctions (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008; Schmidt, 2017). In education, nudging has been shown to improve outcomes such as student participation and parental engagement (Damgaard & Nielsen, 2018; Bergman, 2020; Plak et al., 2023), but its potential for supporting teacher technology adoption remains underexplored.

Although this study is conducted in China, the tension it examines is widely shared across other education systems. The Chinese case thus serves as a theoretically meaningful window for understanding how, as AI becomes institutionalized in education reform across systems, non-coercive nudge-based mechanisms can be used to guide teachers into technology change without relying on coercion.

This study investigates the following questions:

Can nudge-based interventions increase middle school EFL teachers’ actual use of AI tools under policy-driven conditions?

Do different intensities of nudging (low-dosage vs. high-dosage) lead to different levels of teacher engagement?

Theoretical Framework

The study integrates UTAUT and Nudge Theory into a single analytical framework. UTAUT explains technology adoption through four core constructs: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions (Venkatesh et al., 2003). These constructs are widely used to model teachers’ attitudes toward AI (An et al., 2023; Xu et al., 2024; Zheng et al., 2024). However, UTAUT is limited in explaining how teachers behave when adoption is driven by policy rather than intrinsic motivation.

Nudge theory complements UTAUT by focusing on how behavior can be triggered through low-cost, non-coercive interventions that lower psychological and practical barriers to action (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008; Battaglio et al., 2019). In this study, nudges such as goal setting, guided training, social sharing, and feedback are designed to strengthen UTAUT constructs—especially facilitating conditions, performance expectancy, and social influence—thereby enabling hesitant teachers to take initial steps toward AI use without feeling forced.