Conference Agenda

European education policy has increasingly recognised minority and minoritised languages in relation to linguistic rights, inclusion, and the sustainability of linguistic diversity. At the same time, significant challenges remain in translating these policy commitments into meaningful educational practice, resulting in persistent tensions between formal schooling, teacher education, curriculum design, and ecologically-embedded language use in everyday life. Multilingualism policies across Europe emphasise the development of intercultural communication and plurilingual competences to enable pupils to participate in an interconnected world (Beacco et al., 2016; Council of Europe, 2022). However, curricula and pedagogical approaches often continue to materialise monolingual ideologies that implicitly prioritise a single language of instruction (Moore, 2016). In doing so, they frequently reproduce existing societal language hierarchies and offer limited opportunities for the teaching and learning of minority languages (Gorter et al, 2013; Kuiken & Van der Linden, 2013), despite the central role of education in shaping learners’ identities, sense of belonging, and participation in minority language communities.

This symposium aims to examine how minority language education is conceptualised in relation to identity, history, and language ideologies; how it is institutionalised through policy and curriculum; and how it is enacted in classroom practices and community integration. It seeks to connect teacher education, curriculum policy, (informal) learning environments, and learner participation in order to better understand how minority languages are positioned and sustained in educational contexts across Europe. The current symposium thus presents recent developments in the field of minority languages and the development of pedagogical materials to integrate minority languages in multilingual education. By bringing together researchers from the Netherlands, Austria, and Germany, the symposium offers a comparative perspective on the development, evaluation, and educational implications of pedagogical approaches to minority language education in European contexts.

The first paper examines how multilingualism, historical awareness, and the use of the minority language Frisian shape identity formation among pre-service primary teachers in the bilingual province of Fryslân, the Netherlands. Adopting a micro-historical approach, pre-service teachers examined their own family and community language histories and reflected on how history education can foster minority language awareness and inform the design of pedagogical materials for multilingual and minoritised classrooms.

The second paper discusses how minority language education policy for Frisian is translated into curricular practice in Frisian primary schools. Drawing on Cultural-Historical Activity Theory and mixed-methods data from primary schools in Fryslân, the study identifies how interactions between policy actors and school-level activity systems create boundary-crossing tensions that shape curriculum enactment.

The third paper shows informal opportunities for minoritised language learning and discusses their potential integration in formal educational settings. For that, two strategies that aim to support minoritised language revitalisation – as developed in the Horizon Europe project “RISE UP – Revitalising Languages and Safeguarding Cultural Diversity” – are presented: Linguistic Risk-Taking and the Language Village.

The final paper presents how adult learners of Lower Sorbian bridge gaps between formal instruction and community integration. Findings show that proactive engagement with proficient speakers accelerates progress, especially in holistic programs.

Research on Frisian identity has a long tradition (e.g. Betten, 2023; Halink & Spiekhout, 2023; Van Doorn, 2021), yet the role of the Frisian language itself in processes of individual identity formation remains relatively underexplored, particularly among young adults. This question is especially pressing in minority language contexts, where language practices are shaped by asymmetrical power relations, language shift, and educational policies that often privilege majority languages (Austin & Sallabank, 2013; Gorter et al., 2013; Wright, 2004). For primary teacher education, this is highly relevant, as future teachers are expected to address linguistic diversity, heritage, and identity in their classrooms while simultaneously positioning themselves within these dynamics. This presentation examines the relationship between multilingualism, history, and identity formation among pre-service primary teachers in the bilingual province of Fryslân, the Netherlands. Its central aim is to examine how minority languages and cultural heritage contribute to both individual and collective identities, and how such insights can inform pedagogical practice in multilingual and minoritised settings. Our research questions are: (1) How does multilingualism, including the use of a minority language, contribute to young adults’ identity formation? (2) How can multilingualism and identity formation be productively integrated into classroom practice, particularly in history education, in ways that support minority language awareness and valorisation? Using a micro-historical approach (Magnússon & Szijárto, 2013), we task pre-service teachers to investigate their own family and community language histories. Micro-history foregrounds small-scale narratives as a lens through which broader processes— such as language transmission, stigmatisation, revitalisation, and institutionalisation—can be explored. Using qualitative methods, students analyse differences between home and school language practices and relate their experiences to wider social and historical developments affecting Frisian as a minority language. In this talk we will present qualitative data from ten focus group interviews with 50 pre-service teachers who each conducted an in-depth micro-historical study of their own family and community language histories. In these interviews, students reflect on how researching their own linguistic heritage influenced their understanding of minority language identity, experiences of language (de)valorisation, and their professional self-concept as future teachers. In addition, they discuss how the microhistory approach can be adapted for use with primary school pupils to design lesson materials that align with curriculum goals for Frisian and history education. Using reflexive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2021), we show the recurring patterns in identity negotiation, attitudes towards Frisian, and pedagogical reasoning prevalent in the interview data.

Austin, P. K., & Sallabank, J. (2013). Endangered languages:An introduction. Journal of Multilingual and MulticulturalDevelopment, 34(4), 313–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2013.794806 Betten, E. (2013). De Fries. Op syk nei de Fryske identiteit. Ljouwert: Uitgeverij Wijdemeer. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). Can I use TA? Should I use TA? Should I not use TA? Comparing reflexive thematic analysis and other pattern-based qualitative analytic approaches. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 21(1), 37–47. https://doi.org/10.1002/capr.12360 Gorter, D., Zenotz, V., & Cenoz, J. (2013). Introduction: Minority language education facing major local and global challenges. In Minority languages and multilingual education: Bridging the local and the global (pp. 1-9). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. Halink, S., & Spiekhout, D. (2023). Van armzalige modderterpen tot ‘leave Fryske grûn’: Inleiding tot het thema tweeduizend jaar Friezen en hun landschap. De Vrije Fries, 103, 8-19. Magnússon, S. G., & Szijártó, I. M. (2013). What is microhistory?: Theory and practice. Routledge. Van Doorn, F. (2021). De Friezen. Een geschiedenis. Amsterdam: Thomas Rap Wright, S. (2004). Language policy and language planning: nationalism andglobalisation. Palgrave Macmillan.

This contribution presents two ongoing and interconnected PhD trajectories examining the enactment of Frisian language and culture policy in primary education in the province of Fryslân, the Netherlands. Frisian, a regional and minority language (RML), is protected through the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (Riemersma, 2024). At the national level, Frisian has been a compulsory subject since 1980 and the Province of Fryslân and the Dutch government have the ambition that all children in Fryslân have the opportunity to learn and use Frisian, either as a mother tongue or as an additional language, by 2030 (Ministerie van BZK & Provincie Fryslân, 2024). Despite legal frameworks, we found a persistent gap between intended policy ambitions and the realities of school practice. Contributing tensions include teachers’ perceived lack of motivation, knowledge and skills to teach Frisian; the prioritization of Dutch within the curriculum; and the absence of a shared rationale for the role of Frisian and multilingualism. These dynamics reflect historically developed norms, rules and language hierarchies shaping everyday practice (Varkevisser et al., 2023). To bridge the gap between intended and enacted curricula, an infrastructure has been built in which each school has been assigned a school adviser (Provinsje Fryslân, 2024). An additional challenge is the current curriculum renewal, which will become legally binding in 2026. Drawing on Cultural Historical Activity Theory (Engeström, 2015) and policy enactment theory (Ball et al., 2012), we investigate how cultural‑historical tensions within and between activity systems influence curriculum development. To date, we have completed two large-scale surveys of all 369 primary schools in Fryslân, producing a comprehensive overview of policy enactment patterns across the region (Varkevisser & Walsweer, 2018; Varkevisser et al., 2023; Visser et al., manuscript submitted for publication). Building on these insights, the first PhD project contains two interventionist studies exploring how both teachers and teacher trainers negotiate the tensions that emerge in the transition toward a renewed curriculum. The second PhD project is in its preparatory phase, with ethnographic fieldwork examining the role of school advisers as boundary crossers (Akkerman & Bakker, 2011) between the intended and enacted curriculum. Together, these two trajectories contribute to a deeper understanding of how RML policies are negotiated in practice and inform the development of context‑sensitive strategies to support the enactment of RML education in multilingual regions.

Akkerman, S.F., & Bakker, A. (2011). Boundary crossing and boundary objects. Review of Educational Research, 81(2), 132-169. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654311404435 Ball, S.J.J., Maguire, M., & Braun, A. (2012). How schools do policy: policy enactments in secondary schools. Routledge. Engeström, Y. (2015). Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to developmental research (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijkrelaties & Provinsje Fryslân (2024). Bestjoersôfspraak Fryske taal en kultuer 2024-2028. Provinsje Fryslân (2024). Fansels Frysk: Taalnota 2025-2028. Leeuwarden: Provincie Fryslân. Riemersma, A. (2024). The Frisian language in education in the Netherlands (C. Robinson-Jones, Y. R. Scarse, J. Ybema, M. Visser, & A. F. Schukking, Eds.; 5th ed.). Mercator European Research Centre on Multilingualism and Language Learning. Varkevisser, N.A., & Walsweer, A. (2018). It is mei sizzen net te dwaan. Provincie Fryslân. Varkevisser, N.A., Visser, F.H., & Walsweer, A. (2023). It is mei sizzen net te dwaan: 1-meting Primair Onderwijs. Provincie Fryslân. Visser, F. H., Varkevisser, N. A., Walsweer, A., Versloot, A., & Duarte, J. (2025). Policy enactment for the regional and minority language curriculum: The case of Frisian in the Netherlands [Manuscript submitted for publication].

Minoritised language learning in educational contexts often fails to translate into everyday use, partly because learning is conceptualised as a one-way transfer from classroom to daily life rather than a bidirectional ecology that links formal and informal practices. We address this by outlining strategies to strengthen informal minoritised language learning and use, and by reflecting on how these strategies can be linked to classroom practice. Grounded in an ecological view of revitalisation that connects linguistic practices to their social, cultural, and economic environments, we draw on the resource-based revitalisation model (Strasser & Vetter, in preparation). We adopt the concept of “languaging” (Pennycook, 2010) to accommodate a wide spectrum of language user trajectories and proficiencies, from formulaic participation to everyday practice, aligning with empowerment-oriented perspectives that centre new speakers as key drivers of revitalisation. In this context, new speakers are understood as any “individuals who put their energy and effort into learning and using a minoritised language be they originally labelled ‘traditional’ speakers with partial competence, newcomers, or any other members of the communities” (Cajka et al., 2024: 12). Within this frame, we present two strategies developed in the Horizon Europe project RISE UP that strengthen informal learning, and we discuss their connection to formal education. The first strategy is Linguistic Risk-Taking, which aims to foster meaningful target language use in everyday situations. Being originally developed for learning widely used languages (Slavkov & Séror, 2019), it is also considered a promising strategy in minoritised language learning and revitalisation (Cajka & Vetter, forthcoming). Such an implementation, however, requires certain considerations to be addressed, which will be discussed as part of this presentation. Moreover, the adaptation of Linguistic Risk-Taking for minoritised languages will be illustrated with examples from RISE UP, and its connection to classroom practice will be thoroughly reflected. The second strategy entails a collaboratively developed “Language Village” for Burgenland Croatian, modelled on the “Icelandic Village” initiative (Theodórsdóttir, 2013). This concept trains staff in institutions, facilities and shops to support new speakers’ everyday language use. We illustrate the adaptation and implementation of the concept alongside stakeholder engagement aimed at aligning informal learning environments with classroom objectives (Strasser & Vetter, in preparation). Overall, the contribution provides insights into how educational space for minoritised languages can be enlarged by strategies that aim to foster language use outside the classroom, and how a pathway towards connecting formal and informal learning can be established.

Cajka, Stefanie & Vetter, Eva. Forthcoming. Linguistic Risk-Taking for Minoritized Languages: A Reflection on Relevant Considerations. Kölner Online Journal für Lehrer*innenbildung. Cajka, Stefanie, Vetter, Eva, & Wagner, Paulina (2024). D4.2 Definition of quality criteria for practices, activities and tools. RISE UP Consortium. https://www.riseupproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/RISE-UP-D4.2-Definition-of-quality-criteria-for-practices-activities-and-tools-UNIVIE.pdf Pennycook, Alastair. (2010). Language As a Local Practice [1st ed]. Routledge. Slavkov, Nikolay, & Séror, Jérémie (2019). The development of the Linguistic Risk-Taking Initiative at the University of Ottawa. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 75(3), pp. 254-271. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.2018-0202 Strasser, Katharina & Vetter, Eva. In preparation. Report on good practice strategies in language revitalisation. Theodórsdóttir, Guðrún, and Kolbrún Friðriksdóttir. 2013. ‘Íslenskuþorpið: Leið Til Þátttöku í Daglegum Samskiptum á Íslensku’. Milli Mála. Tímarit Um Erlend Tungumál Og Menningu 5(5):13–44.

Adult language learning differs significantly from language acquisition in school. For lesser-used and minority languages, however, educational opportunities for adults are often scarce and resources for autodidactic learning, such as books, apps, or audiovisual materials, are limited (van Dongera et al. 2017: 29-30; 91-96), particularly at advanced stages. In such contexts, Vygotsky’s concept of “more knowledgeable others” (1978) becomes pivotal. Proficient speakers act as gatekeepers to the speech community, providing access to a higher amount and diversity of linguistic input and registers than formal education could offer. This dynamic is especially evident in the context of Lower Sorbian, a minority language in Germany. Most adult learners begin their journey in evening courses but quickly realize that classroom instruction alone is insufficient for acquisition (Běrinkowa et al., 2026). As most Lower Sorbian speakers are also proficient in the dominant national language (German), learners must actively seek out communication partners to practice and deepen their skills. Given the language’s low speaker base, random encounters with such “more knowledgeable others” are rare. Thus, learners must proactively engage with the community (Laschewski & Rädel 2025: 4-5). Moreover, being integrated into the speech community not only facilitates access to diverse linguistic inputs but also fosters a sense of ownership and motivation among learners. To explore these dynamics, the current presentation examines the interplay between formal and informal learning in adult learners’ perceptions of progress. Using a mixed-methods approach, qualitative interviews were conducted with 18 learners of Lower Sorbian in both intensive and non-intensive environments. Additionally, a six-month weekly panel tracked participants’ language learning and use, minimizing recall bias. Follow-up interviews after this period provided updated insights into their progress. Findings reveal that learners often begin in formal settings but soon feel they are “not progressing fast enough.” This perception drives them to expand their language use and seek new contexts for practice. Notably, participants in holistic, full-time programs were more likely to engage with community members, whereas autodidacts and evening-course attendees struggled to establish such connections themselves. The data underscore the interdependence of language learning, community integration, and usage. Educational institutions – particularly those serving minority languages – play a crucial role in actively facilitating the contact between learners and proficient speakers. While this study focuses on Lower Sorbian, its implications extend to the teaching of all languages, emphasizing the need for holistic approaches that combine formal instruction with community engagement.

Běrinkowa, J., Laschewski, L., Rädel, S. (2026, in press). „Ich spüre so einen Aufschwung gegenüber der Sprache“ – Die Situation der niedersorbischen Sprache und Potentiale ihrer Revitalisierung. Sprachpolitik & Sprachenpolitik 1. Laschewski, L. & Rädel, S. (2025): Evaluating Language Revitalization – The Case of Zorja. Lětopis 72. https://doi.org/10.59195/lp.2025.72-202 van Dongera, R., van der Meer, C. & Sterk, R. (2017). Research for CULT Committee – Minority languages and education: best practices and pitfalls, European Parliament, Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Brussels. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.