Purpose of this paper

This paper investigates how frugality, understood as “doing more with less,” can serve as a strategic approach for designing resilient and efficient supply chains under resource constraints, geopolitical volatility, and sustainability pressures (Fulconis et al., 2019). While frugal innovation has often been associated with contemporary low-cost contexts, this study examines historical supply chains—including trans-Saharan caravans (Lydon, 2008), the Roman cursus publicus (Kolb, 2012), and medieval guild networks (Ogilvie, 2011)—to extract enduring principles applicable to modern logistics. Historical examples reveal how societies maintained reliable flows despite extreme scarcity, long distances, political instability, and environmental challenges. Mechanisms such as disciplined resource allocation, standardized processes, structured governance, stakeholder coordination, and localized adaptation emerge as central to operational effectiveness. By understanding and translating these mechanisms to contemporary contexts, the paper highlights frugality as both a theoretical lens and practical framework for supply chain design. The study aims to underline that efficiency, resilience, and continuity can be achieved without reliance on expensive technologies or abundant resources. This work provides executives and researchers with insights on how historical lessons inform contemporary approaches to lean, sustainable, and robust supply chains. Ultimately, the paper contributes to a richer understanding of frugality in operations management, offering actionable guidance for improving performance while minimizing environmental costs.

Design/methodology/approach

The research adopts a historical-comparative approach, analyzing three emblematic supply chain systems from different periods and regions: trans-Saharan caravans, the Roman Empire’s cursus publicus, and medieval European guild networks. Data sources include historical texts, archaeological records, and prior academic studies on logistics, operational management, and frugal innovation. Each case is examined with attention to operational mechanisms, governance structures, and adaptation strategies that enabled continuity of trade and resource flows under scarcity. The study identifies recurring patterns in resource allocation, coordination, standardization, and resilience practices, and systematically maps them to contemporary supply chain challenges. By integrating insights from historical and modern literature on frugal innovation, lean management, and supply chain resilience, the paper establishes a conceptual framework linking past practices to present-day applications. Analytical methods include qualitative synthesis, comparative case analysis, and thematic coding of operational principles. The approach emphasizes extracting transferable lessons rather than technological replication, allowing generalization of strategic principles across modern supply chains. Special focus is given to balancing standardization and local adaptation, enhancing resilience, and optimizing limited resources, illustrating how historical operational strategies inform modern design and management.

Findings

The analysis reveals that historical supply chains achieved efficiency, reliability, and resilience through frugality-driven mechanisms rather than technological sophistication or resource abundance. Trans-Saharan caravans optimized camel deployment, human labor, and route selection while relying on environmental knowledge and social coordination to sustain trade across harsh deserts. Roman logistics combined centralized planning, relay stations, standardized procedures, and local adaptation to ensure uninterrupted movement of officials, goods, and information across vast territories. Medieval guilds implemented cooperative governance, standardized measures, collective financing, and coordinated transport networks, reducing uncertainty and maintaining continuity under political and environmental constraints. Across the three cases, recurring principles include disciplined resource allocation, structured governance, stakeholder coordination, and adaptive flexibility. Translating these insights to contemporary supply chains, the paper demonstrates that frugal practices support lean, resilient, and sustainable operations by enabling resource optimization, risk mitigation, and reliable flow management. Historical patterns of efficiency under constraints provide a blueprint for modern organizations seeking to achieve continuity and robustness without over-reliance on advanced technologies or excessive resources. This highlights frugality as both a practical and theoretical lever for contemporary logistics.

Value

This paper contributes a novel perspective by linking historical supply chain practices to contemporary challenges in logistics. While most research on frugal innovation focuses on SMEs or emerging markets, this study demonstrates that principles of resource optimization, standardization, coordination, and adaptability have universal applicability. By exploring long-standing operational mechanisms that sustained trade under scarcity and uncertainty, the paper provides actionable insights for designing modern supply chains that are resilient, lean, and environmentally responsible. The findings are valuable to academics exploring operational management, supply chain strategy, and frugal innovation, as well as practitioners seeking evidence-based approaches to enhance efficiency, continuity, and sustainability in complex and uncertain operational environments.

Research limitations/implications

The historical focus limits direct quantitative transferability to contemporary, technology-intensive supply chains. Differences in scale, regulatory environments, and modern infrastructure must be considered. Future research could apply empirical studies to validate the effectiveness of historical frugality principles in contemporary logistics, particularly across global and digitally integrated supply chains. Additional work could also explore sector-specific applications, assessing performance outcomes in different industrial contexts.

Practical implications

The study provides executives with actionable strategies for designing supply chains that balance efficiency, resilience, and sustainability. Practical applications include resource pooling, process standardization with local adaptation, structured stakeholder coordination, and risk anticipation. Organizations can implement frugality-driven operational practices to minimize waste, enhance flow continuity, and maintain reliability under conditions of scarcity, disruption, or uncertainty. The historical perspective offers a framework for sustainable supply chain solutions adaptable to diverse operational environments.

References

Fulconis, F., Paché, G., & Reynaud, E. (2019). Frugal supply chains: A managerial and societal perspective. Society & Business Review, 14(3), 228–241.

Kolb, A. (2012). Transport and communication in the Roman State: The cursus publicus. In C. Adams and R. Laurence (Eds.), Travel and geography in the Roman Empire (pp. 95–105). London: Routledge.

Lydon, G. (2008). Contracting caravans: Partnership and profit in nineteenth- and early twentieth-century trans-Saharan trade. Journal of Global History, 3(1), 89–113.

Ogilvie, S. (2011). Institutions and European trade: Merchant guilds, 1000–1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Purpose - Vertical integration is one means to create centrally controlled, more resilient (food) supply chains. It is the aim of this paper to investigate the current state of verticalization within the food supply chain in Europe led by retailers, especially when it comes to own production facilities. The paper examines trends in food supply chain verticalization, reasons for or against verticalization, patterns in verticalization, and to depict product groups particularly affected by this trend

Design/methodology/approach - The study analyses 64 major European food retail companies using primarily company-reported data such as annual reports and company communication (sustainability reports, homepages) regarding own production practices, complemented by industry sources. A mixed methods- approach was applied, using qualitative and quantitative content analysis

Findings - There is a trend towards vertical integration amongst certain bigger European food retail companies. While assortment planning, private label development, sourcing and supply chain management/ logistics are seen as core business and applied by all companies, own production facilities are a rising topic in the industry. Baked goods and meat and sausage products are frequently produced by the company itself. Non-alcoholic and alcoholic beverages, fish, dairy products, own agriculture, trade/processing of fruit and vegetables, and ready meals are also common. Other product groups such as sweets and snacks, ice cream, pasta, printed items, grain and rice processing, spices, fruit spreads, and honey are produced sporadically by the companies themselves. Some companies produce their own energy (photovoltaics, hydrogen) and in some cases even act as waste disposal/ recycling companies. There is also a noticeable trend toward vertical farming in northern Europe. Main reasons for vertical integration are control over the supply chain, resilience (security of supply), quality assurance and independence, responsiveness to customer requests, flexibility with regard to product range changes, pricing issues, cost efficiency and higher margins, regionality and marketing goals, brand management, differentiation from the competition, sustainability goals, economies of scale, traceability, and often more regional, shorter supply chains.

Originality/ Value – This study provides the first systematic overview over verticalization efforts in the European food retail. All major companies and their production facilities are covered. Areas of high vertical integration were identified as well as reasons for verticalization.

Research limitations/ implications - The focus on European firms and their self-reported data limit the generalizability of findings. Future research could aim at primary sources and focus on different regions and continents to add to the knowledge gained for Europe. Also, future research should investigate how strong verticalization disrupts markets and how it contributes to market power and how unilateral power and the resulting effects can be prevented.

Practical implications - This paper offers an overview and benchmarks for companies in the food industry that intend to understand the current state of verticalization and potential drivers to verticalize their own food supply chain. It also creates insights for policymakers for better assessment whether regulation might be relevant within the market.

Purpose of this paper

Food supply chains are increasingly exposed to vulnerability, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity (VUCA) driven by climate change, geopolitical instability, regulatory inconsistency, and ever-changing societal expectations (Bennett and Lemoine, 2014; Millar et al, 2018; Setyadi, Pawirosumarto & Damaris, 2025). However, existing studies often examine these challenges through isolated theoretical lenses, limiting our understanding of how different organisational, institutional, and network-level mechanisms jointly influence sustainability and resilience outcomes. Using the chocolate supply chain as an example due to its extreme exposure to climate risks, global sourcing dependencies, and evolving sustainability regulations- this study integrates three complementary theoretical perspectives including Dynamic Capabilities Theory, New Institutional Theory and Network Theory. Together, these theories would address distinct but interrelated dimensions of supply chain adaptation such as organisational response capabilities, institutional pressures, legitimacy requirements, inter-organisational relationships and network structures. Rather than developing or testing a decision-making framework, this study synthesizes existing theoretical insights to establish a conceptual foundation for future empirical research on sustainability under VUCA conditions. To this end, this paper develops a set of propositions which will serve as a bridge for further.

Design/methodology/approach

This investigation adopts a research synthesis methodology (Torraco, 2005) to develop both integrated frameworks that illustrate the interplay between VUCA conditions and supply chain sustainability. Relevant literature was identified through structured searches of Scopus and Web of Science using predefined keywords related to VUCA, sustainable supply chain management, dynamic capabilities, institutional theory, and network theory. The review focused on peer-reviewed English-language studies published between 2015 and 2025.

Following Jaakkola (2020), the analysis involved identified and compared the core assumptions, constructs, and explanatory mechanisms of each theory. These elements were then mapped against the four VUCA dimensions to identify areas of complementarity, overlap, and theoretical contribution. The synthesis resulted in an integrated conceptual framework (Figure 1) illustrating how organisational capabilities, institutional pressures, and network relationships jointly shape sustainability responses under VUCA conditions.

Figure 1: Visualisation in the theoretical approach

Findings

The research synthesis results in an integrated theoretical framework that explains how distinct dimensions of VUCA differently affect the supply chain. In line with Dynamic Capability theory, uncertainty and ambiguity primarily operate at the organisational level whereas dynamic capabilities enable firms to sense weak signals, interpret ambiguous information, and reconfigure resources through learning and adaptation (Teece, Schilke, Hu, & Helfat, 2016). Consistent with network theory, complexity is identified at a predominantly network level, arising from dense interdependencies, non-linear interactions, and coordination challenges among supply chain interactors (Tipi & El Gazzar, 2021; Greenwood et al, 2011). Built upon the network theory, the synthesis shows that sustainability under complexity depends on the depth of collaborative ties, information flows, and structural positioning within internal organisational networks (Borgatti, Everett, & Johnson, 2018; Bode et al, 2011). Drawing on new institutional theory, vulnerability driven by sustainability transitions and regulatory shifts can be resolved through institutional mechanisms. Institutional pressures define legitimacy thresholds and influence which sustainable strategies are considered viable, thereby shaping organisational responses to rapid environmental shifts (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Scott, 2014; John & Lawton, 2018). Hence, the research synthesis demonstrates that these mechanisms are interdependent rather than isolated. Institutional pressures allow the development of dynamic capabilities, while network positions moderate the effectiveness of both policy application and legitimacy behaviour (John & Lawton, 2018; Wang et al, 2018). Sustainability under VUCA therefore emerges from the interaction of organisational capabilities, institutional contexts, and network structures rather than from a single theoretical mechanism (Teece, Schilke, Hu, & Helfat, 2016; van der Vegt et al., 2015). From this integrated foundation, the study derives a set of theoretically grounded propositions showing how distinct configurations of organisational capabilities, institutional contexts, and network positions might enhance sustainable supply chain management across VUCA conditions.

Value

This investigation contributes to the literature in three distinct ways such as: (1) multi-level conceptual framework (2) theoretical integration, and (3) future research development. First, it introduces a novel multi-level conceptual framework that integrates Dynamic Capabilities Theory, New Institutional Theory, and Network Theory to explain supply chain sustainability under VUCA conditions. Rather than treating these theories isolated, the framework map links specific VUCA dimensions to distinct operational levels, illustrating how uncertainty and ambiguity activate organisational capabilities, complexity drives network structures, and vulnerability drives institutional pressures. Second, by moving beyond parallel theoretical applications, the paper advances methodology in supply chain literature by demonstrating how and why these organisational, institutional, and relational mechanisms interact across levels in vulnerability environments. Finally, it establishes a conceptual foundation for future research particularly within the chocolate supply chain by identifying critical relationships that demonstrate how multi-level configurations collectively shape sustainability and resilience outcomes under VUCA conditions.

Research limitations

This study is presented following a conceptual and theory driven approach, where empirical testing is to follow at the next stage. This will be examined through a mixed method survey in the chocolate supply chain that will consider suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, retailer and researchers.

Practical implications

Although this paper is conceptual, the framework offers practical implications for managers and policymakers operating in chocolate supply chains exposed to VUCA conditions. The synthesis suggests that sustainability cannot be achieved through firm level initiatives but require coordinated responses across organisational, institutional and network levels. For managers, this highlights the importance of developing adaptive capabilities, strengthening collaboration with supply chain partners, and improving visibility across globally dispersed sourcing networks. For policymakers, the framework provides various perspectives to address governance challenges in the chocolate supply chain. By integrating three theories, it highlights how ambiguity may arise from the coexistence of multiple sustainability standards, regulatory requirements and certification schemes including Rainforest Alliance, ISO 34101, Fairtrade and others. Existing studies have noted that sustainability governance in cocoa supply chain is often characterised by overlapping standards, governance mechanisms and creating challenges for implantation and compliance (Keller et al., 2022; Leitz,2022). Therefore, the framework supports policymakers in developing more coherent governance mechanisms. It may reduce regulatory ambiguity and compliance uncertainty while strengthening long-term sustainability outcomes in chocolate supply chains.

References

Ahmed, H.F., et al. (2024) ‘Supply chain complexity and its impact on knowledge transfer: Incorporating sustainable supply chain practices in food supply chain networks’, Logistics, 8(1), p. 5.

Bennett, N. and Lemoine, G.J. (2014) ‘What a difference a word makes: Understanding threats to performance in a VUCA world’, Business Horizons, 57(3), pp. 311–317.

Bode, C., Wagner, S.M., Petersen, K.J. and Ellram, L.M. (2011) ‘Understanding supply network complexity and resilience’, Journal of Supply Chain Management.

Borgatti, S.P., Everett, M.G. and Johnson, J.C. (2018) Analyzing social networks. 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

DiMaggio, P.J. and Powell, W.W. (1983) ‘The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields’, American Sociological Review, 48(2), pp. 147–160.

Dimitrova, G. (2026) ‘Five factors driving up chocolate prices’, BBC News, 1 January. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c8r360jyg5lo (Accessed: [add date]).

Greenwood, R., Raynard, M., Kodeih, F., Micelotta, E.R. and Lounsbury, M. (2011) ‘Institutional complexity and organizational responses’, Academy of Management Annals, 5(1), pp. 317–371. https://doi.org/10.5465/19416520.2011.590299

Jaakkola, E. (2020) ‘Designing conceptual articles: Four approaches’, AMS Review, 10(1), pp. 18–26.

Jabbi, E., & Sawitri, K. D. (2025). Supply chain resilience in the cocoa industry amid global disruptions: A comparative case study of Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire.

John, A. and Lawton, T.C. (2018) ‘International political risk management: Perspectives, approaches and emerging agendas’, International Journal of Management Reviews, 20(4), pp. 847–879.

Kareem, S. (2024) Adaptive sustainable supply chains in a volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous (VUCA) environment. PhD thesis. University of Auckland. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.26385.85603

Keller, J., Markmann, C. & Klink-Lehmann, J. (2022). Sustainability Governance: Insights from a Cocoa Supply Chain. Sustainability, 14(17), 10763.

Leitz, E.U. (2022). Oversight Configuration and Sustainability in Global Commodity Chains: Learnings from Cocoa. Wageningen University PhD Thesis.

Millar, C.C.J.M., et al. (2018) ‘Management innovation in a VUCA world: Challenges and recommendations’, California Management Review, 61(1), pp. 5–14.

Parra-Paitan, C., Meyfroidt, P., Verburg, P. H., & zu Ermgassen, E. K. H. J. (2024). Deforestation and climate risk hotspots in the global cocoa value chain. Environmental Science and Policy, 158, Article 103796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2024.103796

Richard J. Torraco (2005). Writing Integrative Literature Reviews: Guidelines and Examples. doi: 10.1177/1534484305278283

Schilke, O., Hu, S. and Helfat, C. (2024) ‘Dynamic capabilities: A review and research agenda’, Journal of Management.

Scott, W.R. (2014) Institutions and organizations: Ideas, interests, and identities. 4th edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Setyadi, A., Pawirosumarto, S., & Damaris, A. (2025). Toward a resilient and sustainable supply chain: Operational responses to global disruptions in the post-COVID-19 era. Sustainability, 17(13), 6167. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17136167

Teece, D.J., Peteraf, M. and Leih, S. (2016) ‘Dynamic capabilities and organizational agility: Risk, uncertainty and entrepreneurial management in the innovation economy’, California Management Review.

Tipi, N. and El Gazzar, S.H. (2021) ‘Considerations towards a sustainable and resilient supply chain: A modelling perspective’, International Business Logistics Journal, 1(1), pp. 6–13.

van der Vegt, G.S., Essens, P., Wahlström, M. and George, G. (2015) ‘Managing risk and resilience’, Academy of Management Journal, 58(4), pp. 971–980. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2015.4004

Wang, J., et al. (2018) ‘Management of a holistic supply chain network for proactive resilience: Theory and case study’, Computers & Industrial Engineering, 125, pp. 668–677.