Purpose

While blockchain technology is increasingly examined as a means to enhance supply chain transparency, limited research has examined how blockchain may be leveraged to address social sustainability issues like modern slavery. For example, Venkatesh et al. (2020) and Park and Li (2021) examine blockchain associations for social sustainability outcomes at an aggregate level. Within the modern slavery context, blockchain use has been examined in a small number of studies (Marques et al., 2025; Yu et al., 2024). Yet, prior research has insufficiently examined the motivations that drive organisations to implement blockchain for modern slavery remediation, the barriers that constrain implementation, and the levers through which blockchain can be enacted to support remediation. This gap is concerning, as modern slavery operates within complex environments where misaligned motivations, unresolved barriers, or poorly designed interventions can undermine implementation and remediation (Wilhelm et al., 2025). Accordingly, this study aims to examine how blockchain can be implemented to support modern slavery remediation by asking:

1. What drivers and barriers do organisations perceive in implementing blockchain for modern slavery remediation?

2. How can blockchain be effectively implemented to support modern slavery remediation?

Design

The research design involved interviewing two key stakeholder groups: healthcare procurement managers and blockchain experts. The research focuses on the healthcare sector, an underexplored context in modern slavery and blockchain studies, compared with consumer-facing sectors such as fashion, agriculture, and wine (Marques et al., 2025). Australia’s reliance on imported goods further exposes the sector, with half of its healthcare organisations sourcing goods from high-risk regions fail to detect modern slavery (Lichtman et al., 2023). This study employs an abductive approach using a socio-technical systems (STS) perspective. The first stage employed deductive logic, drawing on existing literature to establish a theoretical foundation and develop a priori conceptual framework. The second stage adopted an inductive approach aimed at validating the initial framework through empirical analysis of the interview data. Codes were generated directly from the interview transcripts to identify patterns and relationships. Abductive theorising was then undertaken through iterative engagement between the emergent empirical findings and relevant literature, enabling a reinterpretation of STS.

Findings

Healthcare and blockchain participants offered complementary yet divergent views on the implementation of blockchain for addressing modern slavery. Using STS lens, we organise findings into three interacting dimensions. We then developed a blockchain implementation for modern slavery remediation (BIMSR) framework (Figure 1) which identifies a set of drivers that motivate blockchain implementation, including regulatory compliance, reputational concerns, the pursuit of traceability, and the desire for agile risk management. However, these motivations are tempered by implementation challenges such as low organisational readiness, supplier disengagement, data quality and confidentiality, and system integration issues. To overcome these barriers, the framework highlights enabling levers, such as supplier development, incentivised information-sharing, interoperable technologies, and organisational learning, that can foster alignment between blockchain’s capabilities in social contexts. Drawing from the STS lens, the framework highlights that the success of blockchain implementation hinges not only on technological aspects but also on complex organisational capacity and stakeholder relationships.

Figure 1. Blockchain Implementation for Modern Slavery Remediation (BIMSR) framework (available in word file)

Value

Extending the modern slavery and blockchain literature, this study provides empirical insights from the under-researched healthcare sector. Combining the identified drivers, barriers, and levers, we presented a multi-dimensional view of blockchain implementation for modern slavery remediation (BIMSR) framework. Using STS lens, the study shows that efforts to implement blockchain for modern slavery remediation are contingent upon how organisations navigate socio-technical frictions, social actors, technological infrastructure, and operational processes rather than on the technology itself. The BIMSR framework theorises this by bringing together a set of drivers (e.g., regulatory and reputational pressures), socio-technical challenges (e.g., concerns over sensitive data disclosure, integration costs, change management burden), and enabling levers (e.g., information-sharing incentives) for modern slavery remediation.

Research limitations

The findings are based on qualitative interviews conducted within the Australian healthcare sector. While this context provides rich insights into a highly regulated and under-researched setting, the results may not be directly generalisable to other industries with different regulatory regimes or labour risk profiles.

Implications

The findings provide insights for healthcare organisations and policymakers seeking to implement blockchain for modern slavery remediation. For healthcare organisations, this includes ensuring interoperability with existing procurement and traceability systems and investing in education and training to build internal digital literacy and cross-functional understanding of blockchain applications. Healthcare organisations must therefore pay attention to the social infrastructure required to effectively implement technology and consider supplier-facing incentive structures, such as preferred supplier status, contract renewal advantages, to encourage upstream participation and reliable information-sharing. Policymakers can play a facilitative role by supporting such initiative for interoperability and data governance, that allow healthcare organisations to encourage collaborative supplier development initiatives.

References

Lichtman, S., Bhakoo, V., Kach, A., McGaughey, F., Boersma, M., Dinshaw, F., Nolan, J., & Sinclair, A. (2023). Australia’s Modern Slavery Act: Is it fit for purpose?

Marques, L., Morais, D., & Terra, A. (2025). More than meets the eye: Misconduct and decoupling against blockchain for supply chain transparency. Production and Operations Management, 34(5), 1057-1075.

Park, A., & Li, H. (2021). The effect of blockchain technology on supply chain sustainability performances. Sustainability, 13(4), 1726.

Venkatesh, V., Kang, K., Wang, B., Zhong, R. Y., & Zhang, A. (2020). System architecture for blockchain based transparency of supply chain social sustainability. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 63, 101896.

Wilhelm, M., Bhakoo, V., Soundararajan, V., Crane, A., & Kadfak, A. (2025). Beyond compliance-based governance: The role of social intermediaries in mitigating forced labour in global supply chains. Production and Operations Management, 34(5), 1094-1113.

Yu, W., Wong, C. Y., Jacobs, M., & Chavez, R. (2024). Modern slavery supply chain capabilities: the effects of blockchain technology and employees’ digital dexterity. International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 45(1), 210-235.

• Purpose: Despite growing regulatory oversight and stakeholder scrutiny, human rights abuses associated with conflict minerals persist as a significant challenge within global raw material supply chains. Previous studies have highlighted the role of geopolitical conflict and extraction risks in creating supply chain vulnerabilities (Al-Shwaf & Bell, 2025) and the ambiguous effectiveness of corporate social responsibility initiatives in the context of conflict minerals (Arikan et al., 2017). This study examines how structural complexity in the upstream supply chain and mineral-specific geopolitical risks influence firms’ ability to trace and source conflict-free minerals. The study emphasizes the role of smelters and refiners as critical nexus suppliers.

• Design/methodology/approach: Based on the nexus supplier theory and literature regarding multi-tier supply chain due diligence (Hofmann et al., 2018), this study presents a quantitative research model that links horizontal, vertical, and geographical supply chain complexity to the percentage of conflict-free smelters and refiners. Data were collected through a content analysis of conflict minerals reports filed by electronics manufacturers and were supplemented with financial and environmental, social, and governance (ESG) data from secondary databases. Hypotheses were tested using beta regression models, including robustness checks and mineral-specific analyses.

• Findings: The results indicate that greater horizontal and geographical supply chain complexity is significantly associated with a lower proportion of conflict-free smelters and refiners. This confirms earlier evidence that complex, globally dispersed supply networks hinder transparency and sustainability efforts (Kim & Davis, 2016). Geographic complexity has the strongest negative effect, especially for minerals exposed to higher geopolitical instability, such as tungsten. This is consistent with recent insights on the politicization of "conflict-free" sourcing (Rubaii et al., 2025). By contrast, vertical complexity shows no consistent significant relationship.

• Research limitations/implications: The study relies on publicly disclosed conflict minerals reports and focuses on the electronics industry, which may limit its generalizability. Nevertheless, the study contributes to the existing literature by combining supply chain complexity, geopolitical risk, and the nexus supplier theory into one empirical framework. This extends previous research on supply chain visibility and conflict mineral governance (Swift et al., 2019).

• Practical implications: The findings underscore the need for managers to strategically simplify upstream supply chains, especially by reducing excessive geographical dispersion beyond the smelter and refiner levels. Managing nexus suppliers can enhance traceability and mitigate social sustainability risks. Additionally, policymakers and industry initiatives could benefit from encouraging coordinated approaches that focus on critical chokepoints in mineral supply chains rather than solely on first-tier suppliers.

Purpose

This research aims to provide a quantitative assessment of the supply chain integration (SCI) on sustainability performance in the textile and garment (T&G) sector in Vietnam. Despite the established understanding of supply chain and SCI, the paradigm shift of traceability and transparency requirements in the global supply chain outdates previously generated insights (Kieu et al., 2025).

This paper is based on the Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act (UFLPA) leveled up the transparency requirements as article level and full supply chain traceability are needed to avoid possible seizure of import shipment to the USA (Brake, 2025; US Customs, 2022). Further, the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), Green Claims Directive exacerbated the regulatory complexity (Zhong & Pei, 2024). These increasingly stringent regulations require importers to provide verified and quantifiable products and materials data across the whole supply chain to either import the products or waive the import tariffs. As importers assume these legal responsibilities, they will request their suppliers in all tiers to share these responsibilities by providing data through systematic and tamper-proof mechanisms which encourage the SCI adoption at a whole new level. While previously developed theories can be used in explaining the relationships around SCI with sustainability performance, the current contextual shifts require researchers to reinvent this topic to shed light on this important matter amid global supply chain volatility. To achieve these aims, the authors set three following objectives:

1. Verifying the key drivers of SCI among decision makers in this sector.

2. Confirming the valuable sustainable performance that SCI can bring to the manufacturers in Vietnam, an emerging global market.

3. Providing realistic and practical implications for decision makers in T&G industries to accurately navigate their supply chain strategies.

This research paper identifies context-specific SCI drivers and sustainability effects of integration that are specifically exhibited in a prominent industry in a fast-growing economy.

Design/methodology/approach

This research adopted the quantitative instrument, specifically cross-sectional survey, as the main method in conducting this research. The authors reviewed the Resource-based view theory, Stakeholder theory, and the existing body of knowledge on the current global and Vietnamese context to develop the hypotheses below which are based on the framework shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Proposed theoretical framework

H1: Customer pressure (CP) positively correlates with SCI.

H2: Supply uncertainty (SU) positively correlates with SCI.

H3: Resource orchestration (RO) positively correlates with SCI.

H4: SCI positively correlates with economic performance (ECP).

H5: SCI positively correlates with environmental performance (EP).

H6: Network complexity (NC) moderates the relationship between CP and SCI.

H7: NC moderates the relationship between SU and SCI.

H8: NC moderates the relationship between RO and SCI.

The T&G industry in Vietnam is almost fully integrated with four downstream sectors including yarn spinners, fabric makers, garment manufacturers and fashion brands (VITAS 2025). Thousands of mills and manufacturers are primarily located in the South, accounting for about 55% of the total while the Northern region comprises about 30%, and the Central area accommodates the remaining manufacturers (VITAS 2024). Using systematic sampling technique, the authors are collecting responses from 370 companies with similar geographic and sectoral distribution to ensure the results will represent the entire population of T&G industry (Yamane 1967). In addition, the collected data should include 148 responses from garment manufacturers, 111 fashion brand responses, 56 responses from spinning mill, and 55 fabric mills to ensure proportionate representation. Likert measurement scale of 1-5 was used in our questionnaire to collect data for 43 items, grouped into 9 constructs. With 3,117 invited companies, the survey response rate is expected to be 11,870%. A pilot study (n=50) was implemented to assess the reliability of the instruments. The main study of 370 responses will then proceed with measurement validity with exploratory factory analysis (EFA), then hypotheses will be tested with structural equation modeling (SEM) using SPSS-AMOS.

Findings

The authors completed collecting and analyzing 50 responses for the pilot test. The pilot responses showed that measurement instruments, such as Cronbach’s Alpha values, KMO and Bartlet’s test results, Eigenvalues, meet satisfactory levels. Table 1 shows the summary of these results.

Table 1 Pilot EFA and Reliability Statistics

Construct Cronbach’s Alpha KMO result Bartlett’s result (Sig.) Eigenvalue (Cummulative %)

Customer Pressure 0.790 0.653 0.000 63.337%

Supply Uncertainty 0.830

Resource Orchestration 0.780

Customer Integration 0.779 0.713 0.000 61.743%

Internal Integration 0.844

Supplier Integration 0.819

Network Complexity 0.824 0.761 0.000 61.530%

Economic Performance 0.879 0.792 0.000 64.803%

Environmental Performance 0.823

In addition, Principal Axis Factoring with Oblimin rotation was employed. Most items have factor loadings above 0.500 except for II4 and CI3. II4 exhibits a cross-loading value of 0.489 on Supplier Integration and CI3 exhibits a cross-loading value of -0.448 on Internal Integration. As there are limited loading differentials for these two items, the authors will reword the question to improve measurement precision in the main survey.

Once additional 320 responses are collected, the data analysis has the potential to show positive relationships between SCI and sustainability performance including ECP and EP. In addition, SCI may reduce operating expenses while increasing revenue and profit. More importantly, the findings potentially provide the necessity platforms for supply chain tiers to improve and quantitatively prove their economic and environmental performance.

In addition, the collected data may demonstrate the potentially strong positive correlation between CP, SU, RO and SCI. It is important to have this validation as it had been believed that customer-related drivers will only affect CI efforts, not integration across the whole supply chain. With this result, we expect the customer- or supplier-related drivers do have direct impact on the adoption of all SCI’s subdomains, which include CI, II, and SI. Furthermore, NC is expected to moderate the relationship between CP, SU, RO and SCI.

Value

This paper is unique in two aspects:

1. It fills the gap in the current literature. While global SCI future research trend tends to focus on looking into a specific industry to uncover the effects of its industry-specific context, T&G industry in Vietnam becomes valuable as the country does possess majority of the supply chain (Kieu, 2025). This characteristic ensures the industry-specific content is engaged but the findings can also be further generalized into other areas and industries.

2. The accurate collection of responses to include the right voice from various tiers of T&G supply chain and from various locations across the country.

The findings in this research build literature foundation for future researchers to dive into industry-specific context. The identification of SCI drivers provides industry professionals with valid insights to shape their supply chain decisions and strategies. The sustainability impacts of SCI reassure already adopted manufacturers of their SCI effort while providing added confidence to those who are planning for SCI adoption.

Research limitations/implications

Firstly, this paper collected data only from T&G industry, the findings should be further realigned with other industries’ context before any generalization can be made. Future research can investigate SCI adoption across similar industries that have majority of supply chain’s presence in Vietnam. Secondly, the T&G industry in Vietnam is matured and has fulfilled global standard for social compliance. Therefore, this research does not include social performance. Future research in emerging industries can investigate this important metric of triple bottom lines thoroughly. Lastly, this research paper only examines the moderating effects of NC on drivers-SCI relationship. Moderating effects of NC on SCI-performance relationships can be further investigated in future research.

Managerial and Practical Implications

As SCI is proven to be able to reduce operating expenses, increase revenue and profit, and help companies to prove their environmental performance, non-adopters should prioritize SCI adoption. Initial findings show that NC has a negative moderating impact on the relationship between drivers and SCI. Therefore, on one hand, SCI adopters may think about streamlining their supply chain network through supply base and customer base reduction practices to enhance the adoption success rate. On the other hand, managers can adopt SCI in one product line as a pilot project in which the NC is lower prior to companywide adoption.

References

Brake, B.D., 2025. Incoherence in the UFLPA’s rebuttable presumption: challenges of supply chain transparency. SN Business & Economics, 5(10), p.152.

Customs, U.S. and Protection, B., 2022. Uyghur forced labor prevention act [online] Available at: < https://www.cbp.gov/trade/forced-labor/UFLPA> [Accessed 16 December 2025].

Kieu, M.K., Nayak, R., Akbari, M., George, M. and Panwar, T., 2025. Exploring trajectories in supply chain integration: a systematic analysis of emerging themes. Management Review Quarterly, pp.1-60.

VITAS, 2025. VITAS Monthly Newsletters 2025, Hanoi: Vietnam Textile and Apparel Association.

VITAS, 2024. Vietnam Textile and Apparel Industry Directory 2024, Hanoi: Vietnam Textile and Apparel Association.

Yamane, Taro. 1967. Statistics, An Introductory Analysis, 2nd Ed., New York: Harper and Row

Zhong, J. and Pei, J., 2024. Carbon border adjustment mechanism: a systematic literature review of the latest developments. Climate Policy, 24(2), pp.228-242.