Introduction: Theoretical Background, Objectives, and Research Questions

The emerging field of neuropedagogy offers an interdisciplinary framework that integrates neuroscience, cognitive psychology, and pedagogy to optimize teaching and learning processes (Shvarts-Serebro et al., 2024). This study bridges the gap between traditional classical ballet instruction and contemporary neuropedagogical principles of memory formation and consolidation, examining these mechanisms in an authentic learning environment. Ballet training requires a complex integration of two memory types: declarative memory (conscious knowledge of steps and terminology) and procedural memory (automatic motor execution and movement fluency) (Bläsing et al., 2012). Scientific literature indicates that the consolidation phase, where initial information stabilizes, is sensitive to interference when new information is acquired within the consolidation window (Darby & Sloutsky, 2015; Dudai et al., 2015).

The current study examines neuropedagogical principles in the context of teaching complex movement in classical ballet. It focuses on learning movement phrases, specifically investigating the gap between spatial-perceptual components (shape, direction) and temporal components (rhythm, timing), and their consolidation in memory. The research questions are: (1) Are there differences in efficiency between short-term and long-term memory across different movement components? (2) Does learning an additional movement phrase during the consolidation phase interfere with the stability of the integrated memory? The objective is to characterize these consolidation patterns and establish a foundation for developing research-based, differentiated teaching strategies.

Method

The experimental study was conducted among 36 dance education students (2nd year) within an academic ballet course. Participants learned two distinct classical ballet phrases (one in the sagittal plane and one in the frontal plane), each comprising 13 separate elements. The learning process was based on a structured, four-step teaching protocol designed to provide scaffolding for memory formation, ranging from teacher demonstration and verbal instruction to joint execution and finally independent performance with musical accompaniment (piano).

The study population was initially stratified by prior ballet background to ensure balanced representation. Participants were then assigned to an experimental group, exposed to interference (learning a second sequence 5 minutes after the first), or a control group (without interference). Memory retrieval was evaluated at two critical time points: immediately post-learning (short-term memory) and after 24 hours (long-term memory). Retrieval was assessed through physical performance and a written description of the phrases. Data were analyzed using a detailed binary coding model (correct/incorrect) to assess five distinct dimensions for each element: start position, movement execution, direction, end position, and rhythm.

Results and Discussion

Findings reveal a significant and consistent gap between short-term and long-term memory retrieval across all participants. The most significant finding is the specific decay of the rhythm component: while visual-spatial memory (e.g., direction, start/end position) remained relatively stable over time, temporal memory showed a sharp and significant decline in long-term retention. Additionally, no significant differences were found in long-term memory consolidation between the experimental group (with interference) and the control group (without interference). This finding suggests that, when integrated with declarative memory in dance contexts, procedural memory may be more resilient to interference than either memory type alone.

Analysis of the written descriptions revealed an alignment between physical performance and declarative description. Participants who accurately performed rhythmic elements also tended to include explicit references to temporal aspects (counts and durations) in their written descriptions. These findings indicate a link between declarative and procedural memory and performance quality. It appears that the ability to conceptualize rhythm verbally reflects not only declarative knowledge but also serves as a supporting mechanism for preserving motor execution over the long term.

Educational Significance of the research.

The findings provide an empirical basis for shifting from traditional instruction to neuroscience-informed pedagogy, particularly in teaching complex movements. The identified long-term lability of rhythmic memory necessitates focused pedagogical interventions that bridge the gap between spatial and temporal processing. Teachers must proactively integrate declarative teaching strategies (such as verbal conceptualization and written reflection) alongside motor practice.

From a Future Education perspective, this study demonstrates that the integration of Mind (knowledge) and Body (performance) is not merely a philosophical goal but a practical tool. By "anchoring" the elusive temporal components through language and cognition, educators can reduce learning gaps and enhance capability among a diverse range of learners in heterogeneous classrooms.

Embodied experience and reflection are widely considered central to teaching and learning processes in Physical Education (e.g. Bietz & Scherer, 2026). Many educational concepts understand irritations, uncertainties, crises, or – more generally – a confrontation with the ‘other’ as important prerequisites and conditions for such processes of reflection (e.g. Bähr et al., 2021). Accordingly, teachers have the important professionalization task of designing lessons and educational settings in which a subject matter prove to be irritating for their students. However, questions concerning how and under what circumstances bodily experiences of the ‘other’ can contribute to education require further conceptual clarification; not to mention that the body as a pedagogical (and philosophical) category, of course, continues to be a subject of critical discourse (e.g. Ruin et. al., 2025). Hence, this theoretical-conceptual paper develops a phenomenologically grounded framework for Physical Education that draws on Bernhard Waldenfels’ pathic and responsive oriented (hyper)phenomenology (Waldenfels, 2016; Waldenfels, 2021). The following will argue that Waldenfels’ phenomenological theory offers a previously overlooked conceptual potential, especially for movement-oriented pedagogical contexts. This is due to its decisive discussion of the ‘other’/‘alien’ (‘Andere’/‘Fremde’), the concept of bodily responsivity, and the importance of so-called hyperphenomena like threshold experiences (‘Schwellenerfahrung’).

In dialogue with contemporary theories of general and movement pedagogy (e.g. Bähr et al., 2021; Ruin et al., 2025; Bietz & Scherer, 2026), the framework will be elaborated in close connection to the concept of ‘Bildung’ which, phenomenologically speaking, concerns the development of human beings’ bodily being-to-the-world (sensu Maurice Merleau-Ponty). This reading is especially important for ‘aesthetic’ subjects such as Physical Education where the body assumes a pivotal role as medium, instrument, or objective of movement practices (e.g. Ruin et al., 2025). Here, educational processes are conceptualized as dialectical and bodily mediated (re)structurings of the self-world-relation. They are, thus, not only based on certain individual acts of the self or certain causalities of the world, but are also reliant on polarizing or concretizing constructions, such as collectives, cultures, histories, or changing social circumstances like increasing digitalization (in the context of physical education see Bietz & Scherer, 2026; Ruin et al., 2025). In light of experiential thresholds between individual freedom of development and socio-cultural embeddedness of human beings, the notion of the ‘other’ and bodily responsivity can be interpreted as particularly significant for processes of ‘Bildung’ in the context of movement and sport.

To illustrate the didactic potential of this framework, the paper includes practice-informed examples from teaching units in which students were invited to reconstruct forgotten sport histories. These examples are not presented as empirical findings but as vignettes that demonstrate how encounters with unfamiliar bodily practices and socio-historical narratives can provoke processes of reflection and a restructuring of self-world-relations.

In sum, by integrating Waldenfels’ phenomenological theory with contemporary debates in movement pedagogy and ‘Bildung’ theory, the paper contributes (1) a conceptualization of bodily responsivity as an educational category in Physical Education, (2) a didactic framework for understanding threshold experiences and encounters with the ‘other’, and (3) practice-oriented reflections on pedagogical situations that address the threshold between constructions and reconstructions of the subject matter in light of increasingly diverse and dynamic learning environments.

1. Introduction

Guided by a strong commitment to education, the Mendes Gonçalves Foundation (FMG) is currently developing the project for a public school in the Portuguese municipality of Golegã. Encompassing nursery, daycare, kindergarten, and elementary grades, the Mendes Gonçalves School – designed by Tezuka Architects – seeks to function simultaneously as an inclusive learning environment, deeply engaged with nature-based solutions, and a community hub.

A participatory approach to learning environment design was adopted to align the project with users’ expectations and concerns (Woolner & Clark, 2010), empower stakeholders in the decision-making process, contribute to “connect[ing] people with the places they live” (Taylor & Wright, 2023, p. viii), and foster a sense of belonging to the future “center of community” (Bingler, Quinn & Sullivan, 2003).

The activity “Building Our Educational Space Together, for All”, was implemented during the National Horse Fair in November 2025, using the project’s ground-floor plan (1.10 m×1.10 m) and clearly labelled programmatic areas according to study cycle. Participants were asked to write their ideas for the new school as a shared space on wooden blocks and position them on the plan, metaphorically “raising the walls” of the future School collectively. Based on this activity, this paper discusses the following research questions:

1. How was the activity perceived, understood, and undertaken?

2. What were the participants' perceptions of what is needed in the future school, and how can this space be inclusive?

2. Methods

Our sample included 443 participants: 153 children and 290 adults. Because these data were collected throughout four days during a semi-public event, no demographic or identifying data from participants were collected.

To assess both the implementation and the understanding of the activity, hourly photographs were captured as a visual research method (Miles & Howes, 2015). The analysis focused on comparing block density and spatial distribution within the plan in relation to the designated programmatic areas.

To assess participants' perceptions of what is needed in the future school, we analysed the content of what had been written by participants on the blocks using a structured tabular approach to thematic analysis that is designed for brief texts (Robinson, 2022). We aimed to explore whether participants' perceptions varied according to programmatic area (i.e. daycare vs preschool).

During the activity and the transcription of the contributions, we found that there was a large number of emotional appraisals of the space, which led to the decision to analyse these contributions separately. For the emotional appraisal, we used a visual frequency analysis, via word clouds, where the most repeated words were considered the most important.

3. Results and Discussion

The activity had a high level of participation, with a total of 463 blocks used. There was a progressive densification of blocks on the plan, without, however, revealing any clear intentionality in their placement. Despite the prompt to “raise the walls,” vertical growth of the blocks only began once there was no horizontal space available. Block density was relatively homogeneous across the plan, with no programmatic area exhibiting a higher concentration.

In terms of emotional appraisal, the word clouds demonstrated that the most frequently mentioned emotions and values were: “Friendship”; “Tolerance”; ‘Cooperation’; and “Joy.” All contributions were positive and demonstrated a desire to create a welcoming and inclusive environment.

In terms of participants' perceptions of what is needed in the future school, we observed that participants favoured spaces (20.80% of contributions), particularly sports facilities. The Extracurricular Activities category (18.58%) implied suggestions related to sports, but also arts. In the Skills category (15.38%), there were recommendations to focus on student skills development of “Creativity”; “Teamwork”; ‘Listening’; “Participation”; “Team spirit”; “Responsibility”; and “Commitment.” Overall, we did not find evidence of significant variation of emotional appraisal or otherwise participants’ perceptions of what is needed in the school by programmatic area.

4. Educational Significance of the research

Overall, the activity demonstrated the relevance of participatory design approaches within educational research, evidencing strong levels of engagement and meaningful contributions from participants. By fostering an emotional and appreciative connection with the Mendes Gonçalves School project, the activity supported early stakeholder involvement in the design process with the potential to act as long-term advocates.