Introduction

Research on educational myths (i.e. false beliefs about learning and teaching) shows that such misconceptions are widespread among pre-service teachers and can lead to ineffective instructional practices (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2018). Supporting pre-service teachers in overcoming these myths is therefore essential for enabling them to design learning environments that effectively foster self-regulated learning (SRL) among their future students. Refutation-based instructional approaches delivered through educational technologies (EdTech), such as refutation animations, can reduce belief in targeted myths (Deibl et al., 2024). However, effects often remain limited to explicitly addressed myths and do not consistently generalize to broader conceptual change (Menz et al., 2024). One instructional method that can support the reconstruction of mental models and enhance knowledge transfer, is the use of cognitive prompts (Bannert, 2009). Cognitive engagement, in turn, is considered a prerequisite for conceptual change (Johnson & Sinatra, 2013). Because pre-service teachers have a professional interest in learning topics, addressing educational myths via EdTech may enhance their competence to support SRL, making this approach particularly relevant for teacher education.

This study examined how cognitive prompts and teacher training influence beliefs in myths explicitly refuted and myths not addressed in an EdTech refutation animation (RQ1). It further investigated whether engagement with prompts predicts posttest beliefs in refuted and non-refuted myths (RQ2).

Methodology

A total of 107 participants (51.4% pre-service teachers; 47.7% without teacher training) took part in a two-factorial laboratory study with repeated measures (pretest, posttest). Cognitive prompts and teacher training were manipulated between subjects; refutation was included as a within-subjects factor. The dependent variables were agreement with refuted and non-refuted myths; prompt engagement served as a moderating covariate. After being randomly assigned to the prompts or no-prompts condition and indicating their teacher-training status (enrolled in a teacher training program or not), participants completed a pretest assessing agreement with nine educational myths (e.g., “People have different learning styles.”) on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly agree; 5 = strongly disagree). Participants were not informed that all nine statements represented myths. They then viewed a refutation animation delivered via EdTech addressing five of the nine myths, while four remained unaddressed. In the prompts condition, three cognitive prompts were embedded, and the animation paused for written responses. Prompt engagement was evaluated on a three-point scale (1 = requirements not met; 2 = met; 3 = exceeded). Afterwards, agreement with all nine myths was assessed in a posttest.

Results and Discussion

Regarding RQ1, a repeated-measures MANOVA showed that prompts led to a significant decrease in agreement with both refuted (ηp² = .43) and non-refuted myths (ηp² = .44) over time and within subjects. Teacher training and its interaction with prompts had no significant effects on the agreement with either type of myth over time and within subjects. Between-subjects analysis similarly revealed that only prompting (ηp² = .18) led to a significant difference in the dependent variables. This indicates that cognitive prompts embedded in digital refutation animations can reduce belief in both refuted and non-refuted myths, whereas exposure to teacher training alone seems insufficient.

Addressing RQ2, an ANCOVA showed that prompt engagement significantly moderated the effects of prompts on agreement with refuted (ηp² = .19) and non-refuted myths (ηp² = .11). Thus, the effectiveness of cognitive prompts seems to depend on learners’ degree of cognitive engagement.

Educational Significance of the Research

The findings of the study suggest that EdTech interventions, specifically refutation animations incorporating cognitive prompts, may help pre-service teachers critically evaluate educational myths. This represents an important step toward developing evidence-informed beliefs in teacher education and supporting the design of SRL-supportive learning environments. The results further indicate that teacher training alone may be insufficient to reduce misconceptions, highlighting the need for targeted instructional strategies. Additionally, the moderating role of cognitive engagement emphasizes the importance of designing EdTech tools that actively foster learners’ reflection and cognitive processing. Overall, this study contributes to understanding how technology-enhanced refutation approaches can support conceptual change in teacher education and thus improve future instructional practices.

Introduction

Making sense of modern societal challenges, such as climate change and sustainable energy supply, is challenging due to the vast amount of contradictory information. In order to validate information and make informed decisions, it is not enough to rely on scientific school knowledge and merely check the plausibility of the information (Bromme & Goldman, 2014). Rather, it is important to know which experts to trust. A central goal of science education therefore is to support an understanding of the nature of science (NOS), this is how science works, for example, what roles institutions and research communities play in certifying scientific knowledge (Erduran & Dagher, 2014). Although this goal is increasingly explicated in German-speaking school curricula, in many teacher education programs there are hardly any opportunities to learn how to support students in developing such an understanding. In an interdisciplinary research team, we therefore aim to develop and implement an evidence-based seminar for a German teacher education program in which preservice teachers analyse and adapt existing instructional resources to support the development of students’ NOS understanding.

Methods

The seminar is developed iteratively in a design-based research (DBR) approach including three distinct yet entangled phases: analysis and exploration of the problem, design and construction of an intervention, and evaluation and reflection on its implementation (McKenney & Reeves, 2019). In a first cycle, we formulated first design conjectures, for example, that preservice teachers need some kind of tool that guides their analysis of instructional resources (Obczovsky et al., 2023). We decided to combine the strengths of two well-established conceptualizations of NOS as complementary tools that serve as lenses on instructional resources—the family resemblance approach (FRA) for NOS (Erduran & Dagher, 2014) and consensus view (CV) of NOS (Lederman & Lederman, 2014). For refining this design conjecture and informing design decisions of the second cycle (cf. Obczovsky et al., 2025), we implemented a first version of the seminar in the physics teacher education program in Frankfurt with seven preservice teachers. The focus of this implementation was to (a) determine their understanding and acceptance of the tools provided for analyzing and adapting existing resources using open questions after introducing the tools and interviews after applying these tools in analysis tasks, and (b) examine the quality of their adaptations of existing instructional resources based on their learning products.

Results and Discussion

After the tools were introduced to the preservice teachers, five of them stated that they considered both the CV and the FRA to be plausible, and they all seemed to have at least a basic understanding of them. However, they all described different aspects of the FRA and CV. While some expressed some doubts about the usefulness of the tools, for example regarding the complexity or vagueness of the FRA, most recognize some benefits. For instance, the FRA could help to link different aspects of NOS and provide guidance on planning NOS instruction. Nevertheless, there are also doubts about the relevance of the models for school. In conclusion, it seems that the introduction of the FRA and CV fails to convey a coherent picture of these tools and point out the relevance. The interviews may reveal more insights into their understanding and acceptance after applying the FRA and CV in analysis tasks.

Educational Significance

The findings of this study are of practical relevance, as they can inform the design of learning opportunities in teacher training programs, equipping STEM+ teachers to help their students handle today’s challenges. Furthermore, the findings contribute to a body of research about the analysis and adaptation of instructional resources. This is particularly relevant for understanding what support (preservice) teachers need to translate static instructional resources in dynamic classroom practice.

The need for the internationalisation of contemporary teacher education is widely discussed, given global interconnectedness, increasing classroom diversity, and the expectation that schools contribute to democratic and inclusive societies. International experiences are considered a promising element of teacher professionalisation, particularly with regard to cultural sensitivity, global awareness and professional self-confidence (Bartels et al., 2024; Fuchs et al., 2022; Mesker et al., 2018). Future teachers are expected to develop professional competencies that will enable them to act confidently in heterogeneous, multicultural and transnational learning environments.

Empirical research suggests that international experiences can have a positive effect on teachers' professional development, including increasing their openness to diversity and their sense of self-efficacy. However, existing studies predominantly focus on long-term physical mobility programmes, often emphasising linguistic or intercultural outcomes. Meanwhile, short-term, digitally supported international formats now dominate internationalisation practices in teacher education, accounting for over 75% of activities (Derler et al., 2025). Despite their prevalence, systematic and theory-based evidence on their professional effects remains scarce, particularly with regard to outcomes beyond language acquisition and intercultural competence (Wernisch, 2016).

Against this background, the present study examines whether participation in international blended-learning collaborations between future teachers on initial teacher education programmes in Austria and Kosovo is associated with changes in professional knowledge, metacompétences, self-efficacy and interest in other cultures.

The study presented here is part of a larger study entitled 'Preparing Transformative Teachers for Emerging Democracies', conducted in collaboration between the University of Graz and the University of Prishtina. In this study, five courses were designed to incorporate collaborative learning activities aimed at fostering experience-based internationalisation processes among student teachers from Austria and Kosovo (n = 250). International lecturer teams developed blended-learning units for teacher education courses that facilitate and require structured collaborative work between students from both institutions via online platforms. The study follows a pre-post-test intervention design, with survey data collected before and after students participated in the study in German, English and Albanian.

Data will be collected in March and July 2026. All scales have been shown to have acceptable measurement characteristics in the pre-test study. Professional knowledge is measured using a self-assessment scale of knowledge about education systems in Europe (α=.82). Meta-competences are measured using a self-reflection scale with 8 items on self-efficacy in systemic, professional and ethical thinking (α=.0.81). Self-efficacy in a multicultural classroom is measured using an adapted 8-item scale (e.g. critically examining the curriculum to identify and address negative cultural stereotypes) (α=.77) from TALIS 2024. Interest in other cultures is measured using an adapted 10-item-sacle from ICCS 2022; (α=.77). Descriptive and multivariate analyses will be conducted to model changes in the constructs of interest over time (pre/post) and to statistically examine whether and to what extent participation in international programmes explains or moderates differences in student teachers' self-efficacy (e.g. through interaction effects in regression or repeated-measures models).

It is expected that student teachers who participate in international blended-learning activities will demonstrate higher levels of self-efficacy in the post-test compared to their pre-test scores, as well as compared to participants with lower levels of engagement in collaborative formats. These findings will allow the discussion to move beyond deficit-oriented views of short-term international programmes, contributing to the closing of an empirical and conceptual gap by demonstrating that even brief, digitally supported international experiences can facilitate professional development and the growth of self-efficacy in teacher education.

Our analysis sheds light on how internationalised teacher education formats may explain or moderate differences in student teachers’ self-efficacy. It provides empirical evidence to inform educational policy and decision-making in teacher education and internationalisation. The aim is to support the preparation of future teachers to engage inclusively with the complex and diverse realities of schooling in pluralistic societies.