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16 SES 03 A: Digital Literacy and Problem Solving Competences
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16. ICT in Education and Training
Paper Critical Digital Literacies: Fostering Digital Cultural Knowledge in and for Uncertain Times Durham Univserity, United Kingdom Presenting Author:This paper reports on an action research project on the development of advanced digital literacies with secondary school students in England, taking a multi-generational and agentic approach for that purpose. The project is found on the observation that policy discourses signalling a shortage of digitally skilled workforces has provided a useful, yet narrow perspective of the knowledge students require to thrive in an ever-changing digital environment. While skills and literacies should not be used interchangeably, the emphasis on technical digital ability tends to overshadow the purpose of engaging more deeply with the complexities of digital cultures (Jenkins, 2019); complexities that require an appreciation for the logic of the digital world and the practices that prevail therein (Costa et al., 2018). This translates into the acquisition of digital cultural knowledge (Costa and Li, 2023), key to the safe and ethical navigation of digital environments. Much like Lareau (see 2015) we conceptualise this form of knowledge as one benefiting from ‘cultural guides’ who can help in the learning of ‘the rules of the game’. To do so, a collaboration with university students was developed to ensure digital literacy learning of school students occurred with the support of ‘fresh contacts’ (Mannheim, 1928/2017) who are bound by cultural rather than biological rhythms. This proposal is in keeping with contestations of a technical-instrumentalist curriculum model (Moore and Young, 2001) and in favour of a humanistic approach, one that privileges learning autonomy (Freire, 2001). Digital literacies in schools have often taken on a risk perspective approach, supported by practices of surveillance and prevention (see Reilly, 2021). While preventative measures in the context of schools are hard to contest in light of increased perceptions of digital harm and schools’ attentiveness to students’ welfare and wellbeing, such approaches tend to be less effective in helping students deal with digital issues they may face in reflective way. In other words, while digital preventative measures offer more certainties about the practices to follow and those to avoid, it is less focused on exploring the unpredictability of digital practices as reflective of a changing digital environment. In this vein, focusing less on the “dos” and “don’t” of digital practices and more on the experiences and modes of participation that young people tend to develop online, this project we will discuss via this presentation has attempted to find ways to support young people in dealing with the uncertainties of the digital world while hopeful of the benefits informed, deliberative and reflective practices may bring to young people’s digital lives. The project takes on a stance of ethics and agency, placing students at the centre of such discussions and practices while supported by ‘meaningful others’ who more than being close in age are close in experience and perspective. Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used The project adopted an action-research approach involving school leaders, teachers and students in schools and academic researchers and university students who came together to support each other in the development of digital literacies understandings congruent with young people’s digital experiences and knowledge needs. This method was chosen to explore a learning environment that moved away from prescriptive approaches and offered space and opportunity for participants to cultivate and reflect on the power of their own agency in the context of digital practices. Action research was key in our approach in that it enabled the exploration of key digital problems schools had identified through practical solutions (Creswell, 2020). Using an iterative approach, the project started via consultation with school leaders and school teachers about what they perceived to be the key digital literacy needs of their students. Two areas were identified as priority with reference to their digital issues database records: sexting and misinformation. The second stage of the project was focused on the develop a thorough research literature review that allowed the researchers to conceptualise digital literacies “as skillsets necessary to effective engagement in digital citizenship and day-to-day practice. These skill sets refer to capacities of opinion formation (digital reasoning), intersubjective understanding (digital being), and cultural adaptation (digital integrity) that require scaffolding, mentoring, and bespoke support in curricula designs reflective of a digital logic” (Costa and Oliver, 2023, p.5). The project then proceeded to design digital literacy sessions that followed principles of digital practices and critical pedagogy, as a reflection of the desk research previously conducted. The sessions were designed to support students’: a) prior knowledge and lived experience of the topics under exploration; b) deliberative action through engaging them in discussions that aimed to consider their views and digital activity; and c) creative input by finishing each session with students’ own, tangible creations as a manifestation of their learning and perspectives on the issues explored. Digital Ambassadors (University students) were then trained to deliver the sessions by being made familiar with the research via ‘reading cards’, going through the lesson plans as a potential target audience and reflecting on possible challenges they might face while delivering the sessions. To get a thorough understanding of the project, a comprehensive approach to elicit participants’ views and experiences was organised in the shape of different data collection formats to cover the voices of the different stakeholders involved. Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings In light of this project, this presentation explores how digital literacies are leveraged as a discipline-specific form of knowledge (Oliver, 2021) that combines the mastery of deliberative and ethical forms of communication (Habermas, 2022) with the logic of digital environments as a field of social practice (Costa, 2013) embedded in everyday life. Such an approach proposes an appreciation for digital literacies as extending and interconnecting different spheres of action – school, home, vocational and social life. This is an approach that challenges risk-averse approaches often used in schools and at home to ensure online safety, despite its limited impact (Stoilova et al., 2023). Instead, we invite the audience to perceive students as agentic selves, i.e., digital users capable of reflectively exploring digital practices and the experiences they aspire for their future. Speaking to the theme of the conference, this presentation outlines how embracing uncertainty through reasoned debates is key to the development of informed attitudes and the fostering of digitally ethical selves which is in itself a form of digital empowerment. References Costa, C. (2013). The habitus of digital scholars. Research in Learning Technology, 21. https://doi.org/10.3402/rlt.v21i0.21274 Costa, C., & Li, H. (2023). Digital cultural knowledge and curriculum: The experiences of international students as they moved from on-campus to on-line education during the pandemic. Learning, Media and Technology, 0(0), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2023.2218097 Costa, C., Murphy, M., Pereira, A. L., & Taylor, Y. (2018). Higher education students’ experiences of digital learning and (dis)empowerment. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 34(3). https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.3979 Costa, C., & Oliver, M. (2023). The Durham Digital Literacy Project. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.16790.93768 Creswell, J. (2020). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Global Edition (6th edition). Pearson. Freire, P. (2001). Pedagogy of Freedom: Ethics, Democracy and Civic Courage (New edition). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Habermas, J. (2022). Reflections and Hypotheses on a Further Structural Transformation of the Political Public Sphere. Theory, Culture & Society, 39(4), 145–171. https://doi.org/10.1177/02632764221112341 Jenkins, H. (2019). Participatory Culture: Interviews. John Wiley & Sons. Lareau, A. (2015). Cultural Knowledge and Social Inequality. American Sociological Review, 80(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122414565814 Mannheim, K. (1928). Das Problem der Generationen. KZfSS Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, 69(1), 81–119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11577-017-0412-y Moore, R., & Young, M. (2001). Knowledge and the Curriculum in the Sociology of Education: Towards a reconceptualisation. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 22(4), 445–461. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425690120094421 Oliver, M. (2021). What styles of reasoning are important in primary English? The Curriculum Journal, 32(4), 704–721. https://doi.org/10.1002/curj.120 Reilly, C. A. (2021). Reading risk: Preparing students to develop critical digital literacies and advocate for privacy in digital spaces. Computers and Composition, 61, 102652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compcom.2021.102652 Stoilova, M., Bulger, M., & Livingstone, S. (2023). Do parental control tools fulfil family expectations for child protection? A rapid evidence review of the contexts and outcomes of use. Journal of Children and Media, 0(0), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2023.2265512 16. ICT in Education and Training
Paper Digital competences and entertainment use of digital technologies by Physical Education and Sports Science students 1Universidad de La Frontera, Chile; 2Universidad de Alicante, Spain; 3Universidad Catolica de Temuco, Chile; 4Universidad de Santiago, Chile Presenting Author:Since some time now, it has been feasible to perceive that the relationship between young people and digital technologies is extremely close in terms of frequency and variety of use. Nowadays, young people, especially university students, use digital technologies with high frequency, which can have different types of impacts (Álvarez-Ferrandiz et al., 2023). In some cases, it may lead to academic, entertainment and social uses (Cerda et al., 2018), while in others, it may result in worrying practices, especially those related to problematic use of social networks (Romero-Rodriguez et al., 2020) and smartphone use (Roig-Vila et al., 2020). Therefore, analyzing the relationship between young people and digital technologies should be a matter of interest in the academic world. While this is relevant for university students, it becomes even more critical for student teachers because of their role modeling (Urra et al., 2020). It means that a teacher must not only generate teaching practices based on the curricular content defined by the school system but also develop personal practices considered exemplary by society, which is consciously or unconsciously observed in a vicarial way by their students (Cheung, 2020). Among all types of subjects, physical education is one that has greater relevance due to its practical character. It would be expected that physical education teachers can be a good example of the value of practices they promote. Therefore, these teachers should stimulate and experience real entertainment practices, prioritizing them over the virtual ones available nowadays in the pocket of their students (smartphone). Despite this, Menescardi et al. (2021) conclude that the use of digital technologies in physical education is still basic. While this makes sense, due to the lockdown caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, these habits were modified, even for university students in physical education (Etchevers et al., 2022). Consequently, digital entertainment practices have gained greater acceptance among young people, sometimes being preferred over real practices (Flores et al., 2020). Despite the relevance of the research topic and its implications, there is limited literature regarding the specific understanding of this phenomenon. On the other hand, autonomous use with entertainment purposes of technologies allows the development of various digital competences. The European Framework for Digital Competences (DIGCOMP) provides a detailed description of the essential areas that citizens should have (Carretero et al., 2017; Ferrari, 2013). In these terms, educational institutions must provide citizens with the necessary competences to face new professional challenges. Although it could be thought that the acquisition of these skills is due to formal training processes, many of them can be acquired autonomously through the interaction with various digital devices, considering needs and interests of the users and variables associated with them (Cerda et al., 2022b). According to this context, it is relevant to deep in the understanding of this phenomenon. Considering this background, this research had two objectives. First, describe the access and use to devices and applications that are most commonly used for entertainment by Chilean student teachers in physical education and Spanish students in sports science. Second, according to the country of origin, compare the level of digital competences used for entertainment purposes by these participants. Addressing these objectives provides an initial approach to the role that the entertainment use of digital technologies plays, in comparison to other uses, in the development of digital citizenship competences in university students related to physical activity and sports. Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used This research involved a total of 324 university students from one university in Temuco, Chile (n = 170, 52.5%), and students from one university in Alicante, Spain (n = 154, 47.5%). Considering the total, 68.2% were male and 31.8% were female, with an average age of 21.12 years (SD = 3). The Chilean participants were student teachers in physical education, while Spanish students were part of the Sports Science and Physical Activity program. The information was obtained through two instruments. The first one was a questionnaire developed for a previous research (Cerda et al., 2018), in which access, time and purposes of use of digital technologies (academic, entertainment, social and economic) in devices (desktop computer, laptop computer, smartphone and tablet) and applications (Facebook, Internet search, YouTube, WhatsApp, Instagram and TikTok) were measured. The second one was the entertainment use subscale of the Scale of Purposes of Use and Digital Competences, which measures frequency of use of digital technologies with entertainment purposes (Cerda et al., 2022a). The items were based in the following five digital competences defined by DIGCOMP (Carretero et al., 2017; Ferrari, 2013) A = Browsing, searching and filtering data, information and digital content; B = Managing data, information and digital content; C = Interacting through digital technologies; D = Sharing through digital technologies; E = Developing digital content. Data was collected at the end of 2023. The application of the instruments at each university included a previous explanation of the research objectives, its relevance and the intention to participate. Data analysis was conducted in stages. First, quality controls were performed to analyse the data and identify any potential and incorrect information registered. Second, descriptive analyses of access to devices and applications, number of hours they were used and percentage of time spent on these tasks were conducted. Third, five variables, considering the five digital competences of the Scale of Purposes of Use and Digital Competences were created. Fourth, the normality of the variables was analysed by reviewing their levels of skewness and kurtosis. Fifth, mean comparison tests (t-test for independent samples) were carried out to evaluate the difference in the variables according to the country of origin of the students. Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings The tablet, which shows low access (Chile 13% and Spain 29%), is the device with the highest percentage of entertainment use (Chile 37.5% and Spain 33%, p > 0.05), followed by the smartphone (Chile 31.2% and Spain 33.2%), which is used by 98% of students in both countries. Regarding this device, differences were only showed in time of use, being Chilean students the ones spending more hours (M = 6.91, SD = 3.39) while the Spanish students (M = 4.98, SD = 2.04), t(260) = 6.10, p < .001, Cohen’s d = -0.69. Regarding the applications, TikTok had the highest entertainment use (Chile 66% and Spain 68%). The second most used application is YouTube (Chile 64.7% and Spain 69.3%) with access rates of 89% in Chile and 91% in Spain. In relation to the development of digital competences, Chilean students outperformed their counterpart in Spain in almost all the competences. In specific Browsing (A), Chilean participants got higher scores (M = 3.50, SD = 0.89) than the Spanish (M = 3.10, SD = 0.84), t(322) = 4.16, p < .001, Cohen’s d = -0.46. The same happened with variables: Managing (B), M = 2.49, SD = 1.04 versus M = 2.20, SD = 0.83, t(316)= 2.81, p = .005, Cohen’s d = -0.31; Interacting (C), M = 3.01, SD = 0.99 versus M = 2.61, SD = 0.86, t(321)=3.84, p < .001, Cohen’s d = -0.43; Sharing (D), M = 2.66, SD = 1.03 versus M = 2.40, SD = 0.83), t(317)= 2.55, p = .011, Cohen’s d = -0.28. Only in the case of Develop (E), Spanish got a higher score, (M = 2.09, SD = 1.07) than Chileans (M = 1.96, SD = 0.89), t(319)= 1.18, p = .236, even though the difference was not significative. References Álvarez-Ferrándiz, D., Martínez-Sánchez, I., Rodríguez-Sabiote, C., & Álvarez-Rodríguez, J. (2023). The use of technology In higher education. Pedagogical orientations within education. Journal of Positive Psychology & Wellbeing, 7(3), 391-405. https://journalppw.com/index.php/jppw/article/view/17645/11110 Carretero, S., Vuorikari, R., & Punie, Y. (2017). DigComp 2.1: The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens with eight proficiency levels and examples of use (EUR 28558). Cerda, C., León, M., Saiz, J. L., & Villegas, L. (2022a). Propósitos de uso de tecnologías digitales en estudiantes de pedagogía chilenos: Construcción de una escala basada en competencias digitales. Píxel-Bit. Revista de Medios y Educación, 64, 7-25. https://doi.org/10.12795/pixelbit.93212 Cerda, C., León, M., Saiz, J. L., & Villegas, L. (2022b). Relación entre propósitos de uso de competencias digitales y variables asociadas a estudiantes de pedagogía chilenos. Edutec. Revista Electrónica de Tecnología Educativa(82), 183-198. https://doi.org/10.21556/edutec.2022.82.2557 Cerda, C., Saiz, J. L., Villegas, L., & León, M. (2018). Acceso, tiempo y propósito de uso de tecnologías digitales en estudiantes de pedagogía chilenos. Estudios Pedagogicos, 44(3), 7-22. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-07052018000300007 Cheung, P. (2020). Teachers as role models for physical activity: Are preschool children more active when their teachers are active? European Physical Education Review, 26(1), 101-110. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X19835240 Etchevers, V., Navarrete, M., Valdés, G., & Merellano, E. (2022). Niveles de actividad física y uso del smartphone en estudiantes de pedagogía en educación física: Estudio comparativo en dos momentos de la pandemia. REAF- Revista Chilena de Rehabilitación y Actividad Física, 1(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.32457/reaf1.1764 Ferrari, A. (2013). DIGCOMP: A framework for developing and understanding digital competence in Europe. Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2788/52966 Flores, G., Correa., M., & Cervantes., M. (2020). Deporte, cultura y uso de tecnologías en el tiempo libre de jovenes universitarios. Espiral-Cuadernos del Profesorado, 13(17), 144-159. https://doi.org/10.25115/ecp.v13i27.3491 Menescardi, C., Suárez-Guerrero, C., & Lizandra, J. (2021). Formación del profesorado de educación física en el uso de aplicaciones tacnológicas. Apunts. Educación Física y Deportes, 144, 33-43. https://doi.org/10.5672/apunts.2014-0983.es.(2021/2).144.05 Roig-Vila, R., Prendes-Espinosa, P., & Urrea-Solano, M. (2020). Problematic smartphone use in spanish and italian university students. Sustainability (Switzerland), 12(24), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3390/su122410255 Romero-Rodríguez, J. M., Rodríguez-Jiménez, C., Ramos, M., Marín-Marín, J. A., & Gómez-García, G. (2020). Use of instagram by pre-service teacher education: Smartphone habits and dependency factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(11), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17114097 Urra, B., Freundt, A., Fehrenberg, M., & Muñoz, M. (2020). Paradigma educativo y habilidades el profesor asociadas a la percepción de rol docente en educación física de estudiantes chilenos. Retos, 37, 362-3619. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v37i37.72781 16. ICT in Education and Training
Paper Relationships Between Tertiary Students’ Socioeconomic Status, Behavioral Engagement, Learning Strategies, and Problem Solving in Technology-Rich Environments Lingnan University, Hong Kong S.A.R. (China) Presenting Author:In today's era of rapid technological advancement, technology has a profound impact on our daily lives and society. Technology-rich environments (TRE) not only offer tertiary students collaborative opportunities that foster teamwork and communication skills, but also present unique challenges requiring critical thinking and problem-solving abilities. These challenges include diagnosing and resolving technical issues, designing new hardware or software solutions, and analyzing complex data sets (Mishra et al., 2013; Verdonck et al., 2019). Strong problem-solving abilities enable students to adapt quickly to novel challenges and solve complex problems, making problem-solving in TRE an essential skill for success in the modern workforce and future careers (Hämäläinen et al., 2015). Previous research has explored the relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and students' problem-solving skills to address educational disparities (e.g., Martin et al., 2012). To gain a better understanding of this relationship, it is crucial to examine the potential mediation mechanisms. Previous studies have shown positive connections between SES and students' behavioral engagement (e.g., Guo et al., 2015) and between behavioral engagement and problem-solving (e.g., Guo et al., 2016). Therefore, it is expected that behavioral engagement may serve as a mediator between SES and problem-solving. However, there is limited knowledge about whether behavioral engagement truly mediates the association between SES and problem-solving, particularly in TRE. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the mediating role of behavioral engagement in the relationship between SES and problem-solving in TRE. Research consistently demonstrates that individuals who employ strategic learning approaches tend to exhibit higher levels of problem-solving (Tan, 2019). Effective learning strategies, such as goal setting, self-regulation, metacognitive monitoring, and the use of problem-solving techniques, play a crucial role in facilitating the acquisition of problem-solving skills (Hoffman & Spatariu, 2008). In addition, previous studies have indicated that students from high-SES families are more likely to possess high levels of problem-solving skills (e.g., Martin et al., 2012). Hence, the strength of the association between SES and problem-solving may vary depending on learning strategies. However, there is currently limited knowledge about the effect of the interaction between SES and learning strategies on problem-solving in TRE. Building upon established research on the relationships between SES and problem-solving (e.g., Martin et al., 2012) and between learning strategies and problem-solving (e.g., Hoffman & Spatariu, 2008), it can be hypothesized that learning strategies moderate the association between SES and problem-solving in TRE. In other words, learning strategies may weaken the strength of the association between SES and problem-solving in TRE. Furthermore, the indirect association, where the relationship between SES and problem-solving in TRE is mediated by behavioral engagement, may also vary depending on learning strategies. To the best of our knowledge, no studies have explored the moderating role of learning strategies in the indirect pathways from SES to problem-solving in TRE through behavioral engagement. Based on emerging evidence concerning the relationships between SES and behavioral engagement (e.g., Guo et al., 2015) and between learning strategies and behavioral engagement (e.g., Hospel et al., 2016), it is plausible to hypothesize the existence of a moderation mechanism involved in the indirect association between SES and problem-solving in TRE. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate whether learning strategies moderate both the direct and indirect associations between SES and problem-solving in TRE, mediated by behavioral engagement. Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used The current study utilized data from the Programme for International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), an assessment framework initiated by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). PIAAC aims to measure and compare the proficiency levels of adults in various domains, including problem-solving, across participating countries. By employing standardized tests and surveys, PIAAC evaluates adults' cognitive abilities and workplace skills, with a specific focus on their problem-solving capabilities in real-life situations. In this study, a sample of 12,148 tertiary students (Mage = 25.68 years, 55% female) was analyzed. The variables examined in the study included SES, behavioral engagement in reading, writing, numeracy, and information and communication technology (ICT), learning strategies, and problem-solving in TRE. The initial analysis focused on exploring the mediating role of behavioral engagement in the relationship between SES and problem-solving in TRE. First, the study examined the direct effects of SES on students' problem-solving in TRE. Next, behavioral engagement was introduced as a mediator to investigate the direct effects of SES on problem-solving in TRE. The subsequent analysis aimed to explore the moderating effect of learning strategies on the associations between SES, behavioral engagement, and problem-solving in TRE. To achieve this, a moderated mediation model was estimated, incorporating an interaction term between SES and learning strategies. The interaction term was used to assess the effects of SES on problem-solving in TRE at different levels of learning strategies. If the interaction between SES and learning strategies was found to be significant, a simple slope analysis was conducted to evaluate the conditional direct and indirect effects of SES on students' problem-solving in TRE at low (-1 SD) and high (+1 SD) levels of learning strategies (Preacher, Curran, & Bauer, 2006). The study calculated 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) for the conditional direct and indirect effects. To handle missing data, the study employed the full information maximum likelihood (FIML) approach (Enders, 2010). All main analyses were conducted using Mplus 8 (Muthen & Muthen, 1998–2018). Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings The current study employed a moderated mediation model to investigate the mechanisms underlying the relationship between SES and students' problem-solving in TRE. The findings provided support for the mediating role of behavioral engagement in the association between SES and problem-solving in TRE. First, in line with previous research indicating a positive link between SES and problem-solving (e.g., Martin et al., 2012), the present study established a significant contribution of SES to students' problem-solving in TRE. Second, the study demonstrated that behavioral engagement mediated the relationship between SES and problem-solving in TRE. Third, the study explored the significance of learning strategies in relation to students' behavioral engagement and problem-solving in TRE. However, the results indicated that learning strategies did not moderate the direct effect of SES on students' problem-solving in TRE. Learning strategies were also found to not moderate the indirect association between SES and problem-solving in TRE through behavioral engagement. References Enders, C. K. (2010). Applied missing data analysis. Guilford Press. Guo, F., Yao, M., Wang, C., Yan, W., & Zong, X. (2016). The effects of service learning on student problem solving: The mediating role of classroom engagement. Teaching of Psychology, 43(1), 16-21. Guo, Y., Sun, S., Breit-Smith, A., Morrison, F. J., & Connor, C. M. (2015). Behavioral engagement and reading achievement in elementary-school-age children: A longitudinal cross-lagged analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(2), 332-347. Hoffman, B., & Spatariu, A. (2008). The influence of self-efficacy and metacognitive prompting on math problem-solving efficiency. Contemporary educational psychology, 33(4), 875-893. Hospel, V., Galand, B., & Janosz, M. (2016). Multidimensionality of behavioural engagement: Empirical support and implications. International Journal of Educational Research, 77, 37-49. Martin, A. J., Liem, G. A., Mok, M., & Xu, J. (2012). Problem solving and immigrant student mathematics and science achievement: Multination findings from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Journal of educational psychology, 104(4), 1054-1073. Mishra, P., Fahnoe, C., Henriksen, D., & Deep-Play Research Group. (2013). Creativity, self-directed learning and the architecture of technology rich environments. TechTrends, 57(1), 10–13. Preacher, K. J., Curran, P. J., & Bauer, D. J. (2006). Computational tools for probing interactions in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31(4), 437–448. Tan, R. E. (2019). Academic self-concept, learning strategies and problem solving achievement of university students. European Journal of Education Studies, 2, 287-303 Verdonck, M., Greenaway, R., Kennedy-Behr, A., & Askew, E. (2019). Student experiences of learning in a technology-enabled learning space. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 56(3), 270–281. | ||