Time: Tuesday, 27/Aug/2024: 11:30 - 13:00 Session Chair: Anna Aleksanyan |
Location: Room 002 in ΧΩΔ 01 (Common Teaching Facilities [CTF01]) [Ground Floor] Cap: 44 |
Paper
Critical Voices of Social Justice in Education: Four Teachers’ Stories from Rural Peru
University of Bristol, United Kingdom
Presenting Author:Over the previous three decades, social justice in education has become increasingly relevant to debates on globalisation, capitalism, and inequalities around the world (Rawls, 1971; Young, 1990; Fraser, 1997; Zajda, 2006; Rizvi, 2009; Taylor et al, 1997). In the Latin American context, neoliberalism has become hegemonic in the last 30 years with Peru adopting this model in 1990. However, neoliberalism has affected communities in distinct ways, creating further disparities between a minority who have benefitted from this model and more than one third of the population still living in poverty and exclusion in countries like Peru. For example, the latest national assessments on quality education reveal that 66.4% of children in Huancavelica (rural Peru) do not achieve the expected level of literacy for Year 2 (primary level). By contrast, in regions like Tacna (a predominantly urban region) 55.7% of children achieved the expected level (MINEDU, 2022). Moreover, the neoliberal model has served to marginalise the voices of rural teachers and their practices of social justice in Peru.
As teachers play a central role in educational process, the Peruvian scenario shows that rural teachers’ voices who are engaged in the praxis of social justice have not been sufficiently heard at the level of national debates or been part of large studies. The previous research have been largely focused on the analysis of Peruvian teachers’ policy including aspects of remuneration, quality, performance, among others (Cuenca & Stojnic, 2008; UNESCO, 2017; Montero & Uccelli, 2023). For instance, Cuenca (2020), has published a book of six Peruvian teachers’ stories by analysing aspects of teachers’ identities in the last ten years in the country. The author focuses on teachers' concept of work, the value they place on vocation and the way in which they recognise and are recognised as professionals (Cuenca, 2020). Although the author mentions aspects of critical pedagogies in one of the teaching typologies, the study does not will delve into these aspects through the teachers’ stories from a social justice perspective. And this is a gap in Peruvian educational research that this study seeks to fill in.
Thus, the main research question is: How do a group of schoolteachers in rural Peru conceptualise and practice their commitment to social justice through critical pedagogies within the constraints of the neoliberal policy landscape? As secondary questions:
What do a group of rural teachers in Peru understand by social justice and critical pedagogies?
How do they implement critical pedagogies through their practices as rural teachers?
In what ways could the praxis of social justice through critical pedagogies from these group of rural teachers run into tension within the neoliberal policies?
To discuss the above questions, the theoretical framework focuses on critical pedagogies by reviewing key Freirean concepts such as critical consciousness, problem posing and dialogue. For Freire, critical consciousness is integrated with reality where things and facts exist empirically in their causal and circumstantial correlations (Freire, 1974: 39). While problem-posing education is revolutionary in its futurity and its prophetic and hopeful ethos mediated by dialogue as an act of creation (Freire, 1970).
Although the study discusses the Peruvian case, this research sheds light on broader issues connected to discriminatory processes and injustices that affect educational spaces in European contexts. In particular, this study focuses on the role of teachers as key actors in promoting social justice transformations in highly diverse contexts such as Europe. This is an approach to transforming teaching practices, the construction of knowledge(s), the institutional structure and the material relations of wider society (Pica-Smith, 2018; Breunig, 2005).
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used
The research uses a narrative inquiry approach within the tradition of qualitative studies. The study of narratives refers to the plural ways humans experience the world (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990). Narrative inquiry embraces narrative as both the method and phenomena of study (Pinnegar & Daynes, 2007).Based on the research questions, four rural teachers from Cusco and Ayacucho (two of the poorest regions in the southern highlands of Peru) were selected based on the following criteria:
• Those who have at least five years of teaching experience working with critical pedagogies/social justice perspectives in rural areas of Peru.
• Those who identify themselves as critical educators.
• Those who have a trajectory not only as a teacher but also as activists, leaders or members of networks working in line with critical pedagogies/social justice in education
Alongside the support of two Peruvian NGOs working with social justice perspectives, two teachers from Cusco and two from Ayacucho joined the study. Based on a narrative approach, a set of in-depth interviews were carried out as a main tool to grasp the teacher’s stories about their experiences and meanings around social justice in education.
Following Ritchie et al (2014), the in-depth interviews used open questions to allow the participants the opportunity to express their ideas without the restrictions of closed questions that require yes/no answers. In this sense, based on the model of Riessman (1993), I created the following broad questions:
• Tell me, how did you decide to become a teacher? Could you share about this experience?
• You said you had (example: a very difficult experience teaching in rural schools), can you tell me a bit more about this experience?
• How did you start your engagement with critical pedagogies? Could you tell me about this experience?
• How do you apply critical pedagogies in the classroom with children? Could you provide some examples?
• Would you say, in your own words, what is social justice in education for you? Why?
Thus, I held extensive dialogues with these four teachers in their local schools over a period of four months in Peru followed by online meetings to delve into aspects that they wanted to expand on.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings
Following the paradigmatic analysis (Polkinghorne, 1995), a set key dimensions were identified based on the teacher’s narratives. In this sense, the analysis in-progress reveals the important role of dialogue and critical consciousness in reappraising the native culture as a practice of social justice in education. For example, one teacher from Cusco is problematising the historical discrimination against native culture through the explanation of meanings associated with Quechua surnames. For example, meanings associated with “guidance” and “strength” are helpful to empower students to be proud of their indigenous roots by reflecting critically about their own heritage and history. As this teacher said, “So, I give each student a mission [based on their surnames and meanings] and they work together. So, it is how to bring that cosmovision to put each one "in their spirit". It is not monetary value, it's spiritual value. It's emotion”.
Another key dimension of the practice of social justice is the engagement with the community in reappraising and exalting indigenous knowledge production. For instance, these teachers encourage students to talk with the “Yachaq” (wise elders in the rural Andes) in Quechua (native language) to stimulate use of the language while preserving their cultural elements. For example, one teacher from Ayacucho invites “Yachaqs” to teach students how to cultivate the land while others are invited to give talks about festivities and/or important dates relevant for the community. This cultural information is key in building the communal calendar at the beginning of each year. As one teacher from Ayacucho says: “These activities motivate us as a family, all of us who are there, showing our emotional expressions of joy and sadness, and being united”
Thus, these narratives are emerging from rural teachers who are making their voices heard from a social justice approach.
References
Breunig, M. (2005). Turning experiential education and critical pedagogy theory into praxis. Journal of Experiential Education, 28 (5), 106– 122.
Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories of Experience and Narrative Inquiry. Educational Researcher, 19(5), 2–14
Cuenca, R & Stojnic, L (2008). La cuestión docente Perú: carrera pública magisterial y el discurso del desarrollo profesional. Buenos Aires: Fundación Laboratorio de Políticas Públicas.
Cuenca, R (2020). La misión sagrada: seis historias sobre qué es ser docente en el Perú. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Perú.
Fraser, N. (1997). Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the "Postsocialist" Condition (1st ed.). Routledge.
Freire, P (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York, Continuum
Freire, P (1974) Education for Critical Consciousness. New York, Continuum, 1974
Ministerio de Educación del Perú (MINEDU, 2022) Unidad de Medición de la Calidad Educativa. Evaluación Muestral 2022.
Montero y Uccelli (2023). De ilusiones, conquistas y olvidos. La educación rural en el Perú. Lima: Documento para el Informe GEM 2020 América Latina y el Caribe
Pica-Smith, Cinzia, et al. (2018) Social Justice Education in European Multi-Ethnic Schools: Addressing the Goals of Intercultural Education, Taylor & Francis Group
Pinnegar, S., & Daynes, J. G. (2007). Locating Narrative Inquiry Historically: Thematics in the Turn to Narrative. In D. J. Clandinin (Ed.), Handbook of narrative inquiry: Mapping a methodology (pp. 3–34). Sage Publications
Polkinghorne, D (1995) Narrative configuration in qualitative analysis, International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 8:1, 5-23, DOI: 10.1080/0951839950080103
Rawls, John. 1971. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press
Rizvi, F & Engel L. (2009) Neo-Liberal Globalization, Educational Policy, and the Struggle for Social Justice. In: Ayers, W. et al. Handbook of social justice in education. Routledge
Riessman, C. K. (1993). Narrative analysis. Sage Publications, Inc.
Ritchie, J; Lewis, J., McNaughton Nicholls, C., & Ormston, R. (2014). Qualitative research practice: a guide for social science students and researchers. SAGE publications.
Taylor, S., Rizvi, F., Lingard, B., & Henry, M. (1997). Education Policy and the Politics of Change. London: Routledge
UNESCO Lima (2017) Una Mirada a la profesión docente en el Perú: futuros docentes, docentes en servicio y formadores de docentes.
Young, I. M. (1990). Justice and the politics of difference. Princeton University Press
Zajda J., Majhanovich S., Rust V. (2006) Education and Social Justice: Issues of Liberty and Equality in the Global Culture. In: Zajda J., Majhanovich S., Rust V. (eds) Education and Social Justice. Springer, Dordrecht
Paper
Bridging Educational Divides: Han Chinese Teachers' Perceptions of Indigenous Students in Taiwan
National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Presenting Author:Students in Indigenous societies worldwide often lack enthusiasm for traditional schooling, mainly due to the cultural clash between colonizers and Indigenous people (Battiste, 2002). In alignment with Indigenous communities in other countries, the Indigenous peoples of Taiwan have endured a history marked by both physical and symbolic violence, manifested through military subjugation, the dismantling of social structures, cultural suppression, and forceful assimilation (Sun, 2000; Pawan, 2009). This has left a legacy of colonization that fails to acknowledge or value Indigenous culture and knowledge in public education (Kawagley et al., 1998). With Taiwan's democratic transition and recent advocacy for Indigenous historical justice and transitional justice, the government has enacted several education policies such as Education Act for Indigenous Peoples, Indigenous Languages Development Act, and Development of National Languages Act, safeguarding the education, language, and cultural rights of Indigenous communities. In 2019, amendments to the Education Act for Indigenous Peoples expanded its scope from Indigenous students to encompass all teachers, students, and citizens, marking the formal commencement of an “Indigenous Education for All” era.
While educational policies and regulations play a crucial role in preserving Indigenous languages and cultures and fostering reconciliation between Indigenous and Han Chinese communities, the success of policy implementation and curriculum transformation hinges on teaching and learning, as well as interactions between teachers and students. However, with the migration of Indigenous peoples from Homeland to urban and the significant increase in urban Indigenous students (Huang & Liu, 2016), coupled with the inclusion of Indigenous-related topics in the Curriculum Guidelines of 12-year Basic Education, which implemented in 2019 (Taiwan Ministry of Education, 2019), Han Chinese teachers often find Indigenous-related issues challenging to teach in classrooms with both Indigenous and Han Chinese students, posing challenges to building relationships and interactions with Indigenous students.
A substantial literature indicates that teachers’ perceptions of students influence their expectations, teacher-student interactions, and teaching method (Fang, 1996; Nespor, 1987; Pajares, 1993), thus understanding teachers’ perceptions of Indigenous students and how these perceptions may change is crucial in responding to the challenges they face. Like every human being, teachers harbor preconceived notions about members of different ethnicities, genders, social classes, etc., which are often stable and resistant to change (Tatto, 1996). While qualitative research on Han Chinese teachers’ perceptions of Indigenous students suggests that they may hold stereotypical impressions, adopt a cultural deficit perspective, and even exhibit cultural blindness(Chou, 2005, 2007), recent quantitative survey research on Han Chinese teachers’ knowledge about Indigenous students has identified discrepancies between teachers’ self-reported positive, open, and encouraging attitudes toward Indigenous students and their perceived cultural deficiencies in the students (Couch, Nesterova, & Nguyen, 2023). The authors of both researches argue that such phenomena exist due to teachers’ perceptions being shaped by the contextual environment in which they exist, and these perceptions often align with the mainstream societal views of Indigenous peoples. However, they could not explain the mechanisms through which the context influences teachers’ beliefs of Indigenous students.
Expanding on earlier studies, this research delves deeper into the influence of context on teachers' views of Indigenous students. The purpose of this study is:
- To understand teachers' perspectives, expectations, and awareness of the needs of Indigenous students from different ethnic groups
- To explore how structural contexts influence teachers’ perceptions of Indigenous students
Our study aims to enhance the practice of teachers in creating a safe learning environment and providing suitable opportunities for Indigenous students. Additionally, the research aspires to contribute to discussions on the construction of shared cultural interweaving spaces among different cultural groups.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used
Based on the research purposes, we interviewed 11 in-service teachers to gain insights into their perceptions of, expectations of, and knowledge about Indigenous students. The participants were chosen from regular urban junior high or high schools with a low Indigenous student population (3 schools), regular urban junior high or high schools with a higher Indigenous student population (3 schools), Indigenous-focused schools (schools where Indigenous students constitute over one-third of the total student population in Indigenous areas or schools with over one hundred Indigenous students or one-third of the total student population in non-Indigenous areas) in non-Indigenous area (1 school), and Indigenous-focused schools in Indigenous areas with a majority of Indigenous students (2 schools). These schools were located in metropolitan areas and rural areas. Among the 11 interviewees, 4 were Indigenous teachers, and 7 were Han Chinese teachers. The four Indigenous teachers had diverse backgrounds, representing four out of the sixteen officially recognized Indigenous groups in Taiwan.
The two researchers conducting the interviews brought distinct backgrounds to the study. One researcher, a Han Chinese from Malaysia, with Mandarin as her native language, and had taught in high school, is familiar with both Chinese culture and the educational system in Taiwan. The other researcher, an Indigenous female who grew up in her Homeland, had over 20 years of experience teaching in a regular urban junior high school in the northern metropolitan area. Despite residing in a city, she maintained close ties to both urban Indigenous communities and her Homeland. Considering the delicate social relations between Taiwan Han Chinese and Indigenous peoples, we decided the first researcher to conduct interviews with Han Chinese teachers, while the second researcher interviewed Indigenous teachers.
The primary data sources were semi-structured in-depth interviews. All interviewees provided their informed consent and consented to the audio recording of the interviews. Following the verbatim transcription of the interviews, key points were summarized and provided to the interviewees for member checks. Data analysis was collaboratively conducted by both researchers. Our diverse cultural backgrounds and experiences allowed us to cross-verify our interpretations, enhancing our understanding of the perspectives of Han Chinese and Indigenous teachers. Additionally, throughout the data analysis and interpretation process, we engaged in discussions with other academic peers, which facilitated identifying biases, assumptions, and fallacies in our study.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings
The study reveals that Han Chinese teachers' perceptions of Indigenous students vary depending on the proximity of the school to Indigenous communities. In schools distant from Indigenous communities, where urban Indigenous students are rare and unwilling or unable to live out their cultural identity, Han Chinese teachers often have limited exposure to the group, hindering their understanding of the diversity within urban Indigenous students which had discovered by Indigenous teachers, and thus failed to address the needs of Indigenous students.
Conversely, in schools near Indigenous communities or with a high Indigenous student population, Han Chinese teachers interact frequently with Indigenous communities, and thus accumulate first-hand knowledge of Indigenous life, culture, and values. These teachers, similar to their Indigenous counterpart, effectively respond to the unique needs of Indigenous students. They even begin to adopt an Indigenous perspective, engaging in critical self-reflection through Indigenous culture and regarding it as respected learning resources. Through hybridity formed from the amalgamation of two cultures, they have carved out a third space (Bhabha, 1994), transcending the dichotomies of Han Chinese and Indigenous identities. This establishment of a third space prompts transformative shift in their praxis. In doing so, they contribute to stretched the boundaries of the constrained gaps for the preservation of Indigenous cultural heritage (Liao & Hsu, 2004).
Even though the public education system is considered as “culturally insensitive, contextually irrelevant and [has an] irresponsive curriculum” (Nesterova, 2019) by Indigenous elites, this study found that non-indigenous teachers, who proactively engage with Indigenous communities and engage in critical self-reflection, may become what Freire (2000) refers to as “the converts”, and bring a glimmer of hope to the somewhat bleak educational landscape. This study suggests that teacher training should provide opportunities for teachers to have meaningful interactions and engage in cultural exchange with individuals from diverse cultures.
References
Battiste, M. (2002). Indigenous knowledge and pedagogy in First Nations education: A literature review with recommendations. Ottawa: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada.
Bhabha, K. H. (1994). The location of culture. New York: Routledge.
Chou, Hui-Min (2005). Educating urban Indigenous students in Taiwan: Six teachers’ perspectives. PhD Thesis, University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Chou, Hui-Min (2007). Teachers’ beliefs about teaching urban indigenous students in Taiwan. Report downloaded from https://archive.org/details/ERIC_ED495652
Couch, D., Nesterova, Y. & Nguyen, H. (2023) Examining non-Indigenous teacher perceptions of Indigenous students in Taiwan through a Strategic Relational Approach. Asia Pacific Education Review, published online (28 Feb 2023) https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-023-09830-8
Fang, Zhi-hui (1996). A review of research on teacher beliefs and practices. Educational Research, 38(1), 47-65, DOI: 10.1080/0013188960380104
Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed (M. B. Ramos, Trans.). New York, NY: The
Continuum. (Original work published 1968)
Huang, Shu-min & Liu, Shao-Hua (2016). Discrimination and incorporation of Taiwanese indigenous Austronesian peoples. Asian Ethnicity, 17(2), 294-312. 10.1080/14631369.2015.1112726.
Kawagley, A. Oscar, Norris-Tull, D., & Norris-Tull, R. (1998). The Indigenous worldview of Yupiaq culture: Its scientific nature and relevance to the practice and teaching of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35(2), 133-144.
Liao, Chian-Hui & Hsu, Chih-Hsing (2004). Hybridity and creativity: Another thinking and interpretation for cultural situation and education of aboriginals in Taiwan. Aboriginal Education Quarterly, 34, 81-106.
Nespor, J. (1987). The role of beliefs in the practice of teaching. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 19(4), 317-328, DOI: 10.1080/0022027870190403
Nesterova, Y. (2019). Teaching Indigenous children in Taiwan: Tensions, complexities, and opportunities. Global Studies of Childhood, 9(2), 156-166.
Pajeres, F. (1993). Preservice teachers’ beliefs: A focus for teacher education. Action in Teacher Education, 15(2), 45-54.
Pawan, C. (2009). Indigenous language education in Taiwan. UC Berkeley: Department of Linguistics. Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8wm6g4cf
Sun, Da-Chuan. (2000). Ethnic construction in the cracks: The language, culture and politics of Taiwan Indigenous people. Taipei, Taiwan: UNITAS Publishing.
Taiwan Ministry of Education (2019). Curriculum guidelines of 12-year basic education.
Tatto, M. T. (1996). Examining values and beliefs about teaching diverse students: Understanding the challenges for teacher education. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 18(2), 155-80.