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26 SES 06 C: Advancing Educational Leaders: The Role of Values, Self-Efficacy, and Social Mobility
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26. Educational Leadership
Paper Educational Leadership as a Safeguard for democratic values and Practices 1Aalborg University, Denmark; 2Uppsala universitet Presenting Author:The political landscapes in the Nordic countries are currently undergoing a transition, marked by the influence of far-right political parties that are reshaping human rights and fostering a discourse of 'us and them' concerning foreigners (Norocel et al., 2022). Additionally, equity within the welfare states is facing challenges from neoliberal economic ideologies, contributing to a growing wealth gap between the rich and the poor (Kvist, 2011). Given this evolving context, educational leaders are compelled to respond proactively. This changing landscape underscores the need for research to theorize on how educational leaders can re-establish and re-imagine leadership practices as safeguards for democratic values and practices within educational institutions. Sweden and Denmark, renowned for their social democratic welfare states (Gøsta Esping-Andersen, 2017), prioritizing economic growth, equality, and citizens' rights. Initially, after 1945, Nordic policymakers focused on democratic values in education to counter Nazism. However, this democratic approach has come under pressure in the last 20-30 years as educational policies shifted focus towards performance indicators such as measurable learning outcomes and benchmarking (Moos, 2017). In the 1980s, demographic changes accelerated, leading to more multicultural societies in Sweden and Denmark. New citizens, often migrant workers in low-paying service jobs or refugees from conflict regions, contributed to this shift. Alongside the move to neoliberal governance indicators, this combination likely contributed to growing inequality and the emergence of marginalized groups within society. These groups, as described by Bauman (2007), have "all the time in the world but nothing to do with it." Kalkan (2022) demonstrated that a marginalized group of immigrants in Denmark, rather than attending schools or jobs, spends their time on the streets, emphasizing anti-establishment values. Indeed, the inclusion of marginalized groups in the societal landscape poses a risk, as it may lead to the emergence of anti-democratic values such as racism and hate speech. Evidence shows discriminative structures within the school system (Sarri Krantz, 2018, Katzin, 2021, Wagrell, 2022). From our perspective, educational institutions bear a significant responsibility as safeguards against these anti-democratic tendencies. However, this responsibility is complicated by the performance indicators, as they tend to favour outcome-based teaching approaches. As mentioned, educational leadership has been profoundly influenced by performance indicators, often derived from sources such as the OECD and adapted to national contexts (Pettersson, 2016). Consequently, Swedish and Danish leaders, for the past two decades, have been tasked with guiding their institutions in alignment with these performance indicators (see e.g. Laursen, 2020, Englund, 2005, Ståhlkrantz, 2019). Yet, it is becoming increasingly apparent that these indicators contribute to inequality within societies, pushing them towards anti-democratic values (Kalkan, 2022). Nevertheless, we hold the belief that educational leadership can take a different approach by initiating changes in governance and teaching methods, it can play a crucial role in safeguarding the installation of democratic perspectives in students' understanding of their own situations and their place in both the national and global contexts (Nussbaum, 1997, 2010, Bogotch, Schoorman & Reyes-Guerra, 2017, Sarri Krantz, 2023). Our study entails a comprehensive historical and comparative analysis of educational policies in Sweden and Denmark. In this context, we aim to analyze the selected educational policies and subsequently theorize the possibilities and responsibilities for principals in ensuring the promotion and practice of democratic values within educational settings. To guide our exploration, we pose the following research question: How do educational policies in Sweden and Denmark underpin democratic values while potentially posing threats to social justice? Furthermore, how can the possibilities and responsibilities of principals be theorized in relation to these policies? Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used This research study employs a methodological framework based on two approaches. Firstly, it involves a comprehensive historical analysis of curriculum and educational policies, with a specific analytical focus on democratic values and opportunities for democratic participation in Swedish and Danish primary and lower secondary public schooling (Bryman, 2018). These analyses serve as the groundwork for the subsequent comparison between the Swedish and Danish cases. The comparison, in turn, serves as the foundation for discussing the possibilities for principals to promote democratic education and participation. Table 1 provides an overview of the various policies under investigation, detailing their historical origins and outlining the approach used to interpret them. The analytical process involves a thorough examination of the documents, specifically focusing on identifying indications of democratic values or, conversely, recognizing values that may suggest discrimination. Table 1: Overview of different documents and the analytical focus of the and their operationalizations into categorization criteria for social democracy and neoliberalism Sweden Year Name of document Analytical focus 1969 Curriculum for the elementary school - Democratic values - Human rights 1994 Curriculum for the elementary school - Equity/equality - Democratic core values 2011 Curriculum for the elementary school - Discrimination - Equal treatment Denmark Year Name of document Analytical focus 1975 School Act for primary and lower secondary elementary school - Democratic values - Participation 2014 School Act for primary and lower secondary elementary school - Equity/equality - Academic competences 2019 ‘Ghetto package’ concerning primary and lower secondary elementary school - Discrimination - Equity/equality - Academic competences As depicted in the table within our analysis, our focus centres on democratic values. Equity and discrimination, with discussions arising if contrary instances are observed, particularly exploring the potential for principals to foster democratic schooling. The intention behind adopting a comparative design (Bryman, 2016) is twofold. Firstly, this design enables the development of an understanding of the emerging 'us and them' dynamics in two similar countries characterized by extensive welfare programs and a longstanding emphasis on democratic values in education. Secondly, based on this understanding, the goal is to theorize the possibilities and responsibilities to maintain democratic approaches. Thus, the chosen cases for comparison study educational policies to theorize the possibilities for principals to serve as democratic safeguards, with the normative viewpoint that principals play a vital role in ensuring the integration of democratic values and promoting participation within educational institutions. Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings Our preliminary conclusion suggests that our comparative analysis of how educational policies shape principals' possibilities for democratic agency within their schools reveals that the policies support and emphasize democratic values for schools to educate students to become democratic citizens. However, it also highlights instances of discrimination against students based on their rural areas of living. The role of principals as safeguards for democratic values and practices appears both clear and, at the same time, blurry. This ambiguity arises from the implementation of policies in Sweden and Denmark that either contradict or, at the very least, complicate principals' efforts to support equal and democratic participation. In Sweden principals' possibilities for practices are shaped and constituted by the national political agenda and realised and implemented through the Education Act and soft law such as the curriculum. While, in Denmark, the School Act emphasizes the importance of schools introducing and preparing students to live and act as democratic citizens. However, policies such as the 'Ghetto-package' are discriminatory and shape the agency of principals in these schools to uphold values that contradict the essential democratic principle of equality, when they in fact need a totally different support system (Hirsh et al. 2023). Our examination of Swedish and Danish educational policies exposes a conflict between their professed democratic ideals and the presence of contradictory measures, exerting undue pressure on school principals and challenging the implementation of democratic practices. Through the scrutiny of these two cases, our research illuminates the existing challenges and contributes valuable insights for future studies with an interest for educational leadership and democratic participation. We posit that this knowledge provides a crucial foundation for European policymakers, facilitating a deeper comprehension of the internal pressures faced by even robust democratic societies. References Bauman, Z. (2007). Work, Consumerism and the New Poor (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. Bogotch, I. Schoorman, D. & Reyes-Guerra, D. (2017). Forging the Needed Dialogue Between Educational Leadership and Curriculum Inquiry: Placing Social Justice, Democracy, and Multicultural Perspectives into Practice. In (Eds). Uljens, M. & Ylimaki, R.M., (2017). Bridging Educational Leadership, Curriculum Theory and Didaktik. Non-affirmative Theory of Education. Springer. Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods (5. edition ed.). Oxford University Press. Gøsta Esping-Andersen. (2017). Politics against Markets: The Social Democratic Road to Power (1st ed.). Princeton University Press. 10.1515/9781400886203 Gillander Gådin, K. & Stein, N. (2019). Do schools normalise sexual harassment? An analysis of a legal case regarding sexual harassment in a Swedish high school. Gender and Education. Vol. 31, nr 7, 920-937. Gyberg et al. (2021). Discrimination and its relation to psychosocial well‐being among diverse youth in Sweden. Child & Adolescent Development. 1–19. Hirsh, Å. et al. (2023). Far from the generalised norm: Recognising the interplay between contextual particularities and principals’ leadership in schools in low-socio-economic status communities. Educational Management Administration & Leadership. 1–18. Kalkan, H. (2022). The American Ghetto, Gangster, and Respect on the Streets of Copenhagen: Media(tion)s between Structure and Street Culture. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 51(3), 407-434. 10.1177/08912416211056973 Kvist, J. (2011). Changing social inequality and the Nordic welfare model. (pp. 1-22). Bristol University Press. 10.46692/9781847426611.001 Laursen, R. (2020). Does the Combination of Professional Leadership and Learning Management Systems Signal the End of Democratic Schooling? Research in Educational Administration & Leadership, 5(2), 342. 10.30828/real/2020.2.2 Moos, L. (2017). Neo-liberal Governance Leads Education and Educational Leadership Astray. İn (Eds) Uljens, M. & Ylimaki, R.M., (2017). Bridging Educational Leadership, Curriculum Theory and Didaktik. Non-affirmative Theory of Education. Springer. Norocel, O. C., Saresma, T., Lähdesmäki, T., & Ruotsalainen, M. (2022). Performing ‘us’ and ‘other’: Intersectional analyses of right-wing populist media. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 25(3), 897-915. 10.1177/1367549420980002 Nussbaum, M. C. (1997). Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense of Reform in Liberal Education. Harvard University Press. Sarri Krantz, A. (2023). Kulturen i skolan och skolans kultur. In (Eds) Johansson, N. & Baltzer, C. (2023). Rektors praktik i vetenskaplig belysning: framgångsrikt, hållbart och närvarande ledarskap - är det möjligt? 108 - 124. Liber. Uljens, M. & Ylimaki, R.M., (2017). Bridging Educational Leadership, Curriculum Theory and Didaktik. Non-affirmative Theory of Education. Springer 26. Educational Leadership
Paper Cross-national perspectives on school leadership: Evidence from Scotland and Cyprus 1University of Glasgow, United Kingdom; 2Open University of Cyprus Presenting Author:Purpose This paper provides a cross‐national perspective on school principalship in two countries derived from an analysis of case studies in Scotland and the Republic of Cyprus. Examples from the two education systems are selected to demonstrate cross-national similarities and differences related to the purpose of education, the structure, and the role of leadership in school improvement. We pay particular attention to the research context in order to understand and explain different findings across countries. We present a secondary analysis of case studies from the participating countries which embraced a cultural and context-relevant framework to consider how the values and norms of a society might influence the expectations, beliefs, and context-relevant practices of individuals within schools. This synthesis reveals the complexity of policy and structural pressures on the practices of school leaders and the ways in which they respond to their environments. The comparative context In our cross-national comparison, we provide two instructive cases from which scholars and practitioners can develop nuanced understandings about the social, cultural, and economic conditions that shape and are shaped by the school systems. Case study schools differed both within and across the countries in terms of size, location, school development phase, leadership structure, staff capacity and professional disposition (commitment and resilience), student diversity and resource needs and culture. We began by determining whether the principals demonstrated a core set of leadership practices as conditions for school success (Leithwood et al., 2020; Pashiardis and Kafa, 2023), as well as having greater focus on moral purpose and values-based leadership views (Dimmock and Walker, 2000). In Cyprus, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Youth, and Sports wields significant power in the education system. The Ministry oversees all schools and is in charge of enforcing existing rules and developing new ones (Pashiardis and Tsiakiros, 2015). It also oversees each school's education policy, including administering, monitoring, and assessing education quality and creating the curriculum. The state funds local school boards, who subsequently distribute monies to schools under their control. Cyprus has a restricted centralised education system that requires all school to meet specific rules. A large body of evidence shows that school leaders in Cyprus, both in primary and secondary education, appear to develop external relations as well as networking with all relevant actors; foster a collaborative and shared ownership feeling among their members and within their school organisation; and finally promote a clear vision based on a specific set of values (Kafa and Pashiardis, 2019; Pashiardis et al., 2018). The Scottish education system has a unique and distinctive history and tradition within the member countries of the United Kingdom. The administration and strategic direction are the responsibility of the Scottish Government in Edinburgh, not the UK Government located in London. A series of reform programmes over the last decade or so, aim to promote overall improvement in schools and close the educational attainment gap (Campbell and Harris, 2023). This involved reforms to the curriculum and assessment, quality assurance and inspection, and teacher education with an emphasis on promoting professional development, leadership, and innovation towards a self-improving school system. This shift from a hierarchical to a much flatter-collaborative culture stresses the increasing complexity of schooling and requires attention to the local and cultural context when choosing leadership strategies. Framework We anchored our study in Hallinger’s (2018) context and culture framework for studying how leaders were able to engage with and utilise the multiple contexts (institutional, community, socio-cultural, political, economic, school improvement) to improve their schools. Specifically, this framework reflects leadership approaches that are influenced by multiple contexts and cannot be understood without aspects of school culture and the wider environment. Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used Methods Scotland and Cyprus are interesting cases to compare as they are similar in indicators of social progress via their respective education reform programmes (Social Progress Imperative, 2024). Both countries have, over the last few years, shown a growing commitment to improving equity in student outcomes and in strengthening collaborative approaches to promote schools with high social cohesion. In both countries, an emphasis exists on leaders improving conditions for teaching and learning. These overarching similarities enable a focus on the intricacies of how structures, social and policy contexts, might influence school leaders’ behaviours and practices. Multisite case study methods were chosen as the methodological approach for the study for both countries using semi-structured interviews with a variety of school stakeholders, such as the school principal, teachers, students, and parents (Yin, 2018). Each case study was summarised and coded under broad thematic headings, and then summarised within themes across studies with a brief citation of primary evidence. Analysis of data was both (a) deductive, with a focus on refining provisional conceptualisations of “values-driven leadership” and (b) inductive, with a focus on devising a framework for examining variation and adaptation in leadership practices between cases. Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings Conclusions While there are several differences in leadership context and strategies, there are also significant similarities across the two countries in both the values that principals hold and the practices and behaviours they use in order to build and sustain a strong values platform. This stability platform was intensified when they worked in uncertain crises situations, such as the global pandemic. It was their values and beliefs that guided what they did by using this platform to apply it into a set of rules and priorities. References References Campbell, C., & Harris, A. (2023). All learners in Scotland matter: The national discussion on education final report. The Scottish Government. Dimmock, C., & Walker, A. (2000). Cross-cultural values and leadership. Management in Education, 14(3), 21-24. "Global Index: Results". Social Progress Imperative. Retrieved January 25, 2024. Hallinger, P. (2018). Bringing context out of the shadows of leadership. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 46(1), 5-24. Kafa, A., & Pashiardis, P. (2019). Exploring school principals’ personal identities in Cyprus from a values perspective. International Journal of Educational Management, 33(5), 886-902. Leithwood, K., Harris, A., & Hopkins, D. (2008). Seven strong claims about successful school leadership. School leadership and management, 28(1), 27-42. Pashiardis, P., Brauckmann, S., & Kafa, A. (2018). Let the context become your ally: School principalship in two cases from low performing schools in Cyprus. School Leadership & Management, 38(5), 478-495. Pashiardis, P. & Kafa, A. (2022). Successful School Principals in Primary and Secondary Education: A Comprehensive Review of a Ten-Year Research in Cyprus. Journal of Educational Administration, 60 (1), 41-55. Pashiardis, P., & Tsiakiros, A. (2015). Cyprus. In The Education Systems of Europe (pp. 173-186). Springer. Yin R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: Design and methods (6th ed.). Sage. 26. Educational Leadership
Paper A Comparison of General Self-efficacy and Specific Self-efficacy Among Flemish Primary Principals University Ghent, Belgium Presenting Author:Self-efficacy beliefs play a central role in human functioning. They influence whether individuals set ambitious goals, how much effort they invest and how long they persist when facing difficulties and failures (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy can be general or specific, and both aspects of self-efficacy may promote optimal functioning (Schutte & Malouff, 2016). General self-efficacy beliefs are conceptualized as “individuals' perception of their ability to perform across a variety of situations” (Judge, Erez, & Bono, 1998, p. 169). Specific self-efficacy describes an individual’s belief he or she can bring about good outcomes in a defined area of life, such as during work (Bandura, 2012). Most studies on self-efficacy have examined either general or specific self-efficacy as unique separate constructs. Only a small number of studies have simultaneously looked at the two facets of self-efficacy (Schutte & Malouff, 2016). In the present study we focus on the concepts of general self-efficacy and specific self-efficacy among Flemish elementary principals and how these two concepts relate to each other. The first goal of this study is to validate the multi-dimensional principal self-efficacy instrument of Federici and Skaalvik (2011). In developing this questionnaire, the authors (Federici & Skaalvik, 2011) performed a confirmatory factor analysis on the data, but no exploratory factor analysis. Also, their instrument was developed in a study with Norwegian principals. We believe it is important to validate their instrument again in a new study with a different population of principals (in Flanders, Belgium). A second goal in this study is to examine the relation between principal self-efficacy and general self-efficacy. According to Schutte and Malouff (2016) both specific and general forms of self-efficacy have the potential to support optimal functioning. It is important to establish if the concepts refer to different phenomena and in what way there is overlap between the two concepts. The third goal of this study is to analyze the relation between both principal self-efficacy and general self-efficacy with other variables. Exploring the similarities and differences between both forms of self-efficacy in relation to other variables can shed light on the way in which we must perceive both concepts, their mutual relationship, and their respective relevance. We have included demographic, career-related and work-related variables to study in relation to the self-efficacy forms. One of the most researched variables related to self-efficacy is the seniority of principals. Previous research has suggested that experience affects self-efficacy (Fisher, 2014; Özer, 2013). In addition, based on the research of Elias and colleagues (2013), we can hypothesize that work-related variables will be more correlated with principal self-efficacy than with general self-efficacy. Therefore, we selected two variables related to a more or less challenging work context, namely the school size and the location of the school. Schools with a large number of staff are more difficult to manage and urban schools have a more diverse population than rural schools. We expect these variables to make a greater difference for principal self-efficacy than for general self-efficacy. Finally, gender, tenure and principal training were also included. Gender is an important demographic variable, and it is interesting to explore if gender makes a difference for both forms of self-efficacy. Gaining tenure is an important step in the career of principals. We want to explore if this career step makes a difference. It can be expected that tenure enhances the self-efficacy of principals. Finally, the training of principals can be considered as an important potential influence on school leadership development. It is interesting to study if training is related to the self-efficacy of principals. Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used 981 principals in Flanders participated in an online questionnaire about their sense of self-efficacy. To assess general self-efficacy, we used the General Self-Efficacy scale of Chen, Gully, & Eden (2001). This self-report scale consists of 8 items about a person’s general self-efficacy. To determine the specific self-efficacy, the principal self-efficacy instrument of Federici and Skaalvik (2011, 2012) was used. The instrument of Federici and Skaalvik (2012) includes 8 scales, based on minimum 2 items each: economic management, instructional leadership, municipal authority, parental relations, local community, administrative management, teacher support, school environment. To study the first research goal, exploratory graph analysis (EGA), exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and reliability analysis were used to study the construct validity of the principal self-efficacy scale. First, an exploratory graph analysis (EGA) was conducted. EGA is a new technique to estimate the number of factors underlying multivariate data (Christensen & Golino, 2021; Golino et al., 2019). After the EGA, an EFA was performed to uncover the underlying structure of the factors. Further, a CFA was performed to confirm the data. Finally, Cronbach's alpha was calculated to indicate reliability. The EGA and the CFA were analyzed using R version 4.1.1 with the lavaan package (Rosseel, 2012). In contrast, the EFA and the reliability analysis were conducted in SPSS 29.0. We used maximum-likelihood extraction with promax rotation for the EFA. In addition, we tested the extent to which general and specific self-efficacy are related. For research goal two, we compared general and specific self-efficacy by analyzing the correlation table. For research goal three, we studied the relationship with demographic variables, career variables and work-related variables, (M)ANCOVA was used. Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings First, the results indicate that general and principal self-efficacy are two different concepts. Although there are significant correlations between general and principal self-efficacy subscales, only the subscale administrative management scores relatively high (.508), followed by de subscale people management (.366). The range of correlations between the other principal self-efficacy subscales and general self-efficacy is .173 and .287, which is rather low. Administrative management refers more to general tasks that principals perform. Therefore, the similarity with general self-efficacy is not surprising. Still, it only is correlated with a score of .508. The second factor ‘people management’ which refers more to general people management tasks. The other scales are all more specific tasks. These findings suggest that certain subscales of the principal self-efficacy are more strongly associated with general self-efficacy than others. In addution, our analysis of both forms of self-efficacy in their relationship with other variables provides a complex and mixed picture. We expected that general self-efficacy is definitely an individual trait, not easy to influence, whereas principal self-efficacy, although also an individual trait, is more context related and therefore is more strongly related to specific work conditions. But we found that one of the two work-related variables we studied, size of the school, is significantly related to general self-efficacy and not to principal-self-efficacy. On the other hand, gender, a typical individual, demographic characteristic, was not related to general self-efficacy, but to specific subscales of principal self-efficacy. In these subscales, we found typical gender stereotypes. So, we can not conclude from our study that general self-efficacy is only a matter of individual trait characteristics and principal self-efficacy is more related to work context and can more easily be influenced. References Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman & Company. Bandura, A. (2012). On the functional properties of perceived self-efficacy revisited. Journal of Management, 38, 9–44. Bellemans, L., Devos, G., Tuytens, M., & Vekeman, E. (2023). The role of self-efficacy on feelings of burnout among Flemish school principals during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Educational Administration, ahead-of-p(ahead-of-print). https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-09-2022-0138 Chen, Gully, S. M., & Eden, D. (2001). Validation of a New General Self-Efficacy Scale. Organizational Research Methods, 4(1), 62–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442810141004 Christensen, A. P., & Golino, H. (2021). Estimating the Stability of Psychological Dimensions via Bootstrap Exploratory Graph Analysis: A Monte Carlo Simulation and Tutorial. Psych, 3(3), 479–500. https://doi.org/10.3390/psych3030032 Elias, S. M., Barney, C. E., & Bishop, J. W. (2013). The treatment of self-efficacy among psychology and management scholars. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43(4), 811–822. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12007 Federici, R. A., & Skaalvik, E. M. (2011). Principal self-efficacy and work engagement: assessing a Norwegian Principal Self-Efficacy Scale. Social Psychology of Education, 14(4), 575–600. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-011-9160-4 Golino, H., Shi, D., Christensen, A. P., Garrido, L. E., Nieto, M. D., Sadana, R., … Martínez-Molina, A. (2019). Investigating the performance of Exploratory Graph Analysis and traditional techniques to identify the number of latent factors: A simulation and tutorial. Psychological Methods, 25(3), 292–320. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000255 Hannah, S. T., Avolio, B. J., Walumbwa, F. O., & Chan, A. (2012). Leader Self and Means Efficacy: A multi-component approach. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 118(2), 143–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2012.03.007 Judge, T. A., Erez, A., & Bono, J. E. (1998). The Power of Being Positive: The Relation Between Positive Self-Concept and job Performance. Human Performance, 11(2–3), 167–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959285.1998.9668030 Luszczynska, A., Mohamed, N. E., & Schwarzer, R. (2005). Self-efficacy and social support predict benefit finding 12 months after cancer surgery: The mediating role of coping strategies. Psychology, Health and Medicine, 10(4), 365–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548500500093738 Luszczynska, A., Scholz, U., & Schwarzer, R. (2005). The General Self-Efficacy Scale: Multicultural Validation Studies. The Journal of Psychology, 139(5), 439–457. Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36. Schutte, N. S., & Malouff, J. M. (2016). General and Realm-Specific Self-Efficacy: Connections to Life Functioning. Current Psychology, 35(3), 361–369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-014-9301-y 26. Educational Leadership
Paper Social mobility leadership in Arab education in Israel: Multiple-case studies Bar-Ilan University, Israel Presenting Author:Social mobility refers to “the ability to move between different levels in society or in employment, especially from a lower social position to a higher one” (Iversen et al., 2019: pp. 239–240). No consensus has been reached on the different components of social mobility, but there is a broad agreement that a just society should create equal opportunities for diverse citizens to succeed in society, regardless of the economic status of their families (Iversen et al., 2019). Studies addressing the role of a school principal as an agent of social change employ key theories that explore the dynamic interplay between leadership and cultural contexts, such as culturally responsive leadership model (Khalifa et al., 2016) or culturally relevant leadership (Horsford et al., 2011). At the same time, researchers have also studied the role of the school principal in contexts such as ensuring social justice (Arar et al., 2017; Lai, 2015; Wang, 2018), empowering students (Kirk et al., 2017), and fostering achievements and abilities (Greaves et al., 2014). Each of these models and areas is based on different concepts and theoretical notions about how school leadership is related to social mobility; nevertheless, the broad agreement is that school principals are in a key position to influence students’ social mobility and integration (Bloomberg, 2023). Based on these theoretical concepts, school principals implement various practices to promote social mobility among their students. For example, principals design and maintain respectful relationships, allow the expression of different voices around the school community, and demonstrate social justice within schools (Lai, 2015). Regarding students’ empowerment, principals can create positive traditions, support student leadership, accept cultural diversity, or encourage teachers to believe in their students (Kirk et al., 2017). Other important practices deal with the improvement in students’ grades, especially for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics subjects (Hoskins and Barker, 2020). Nevertheless, most of the literature about educational school leadership and social mobility deals with schools that have ethnic and cultural diversity, where the role of the principal is to ensure social justice within the school borders (Arar et al., 2017). The role of the school principal in empowering students in the context of schools that are within a minority group and are not ethnically diverse has not been sufficiently explored. Moreover, previous studies on the role of the school principal in promoting social mobility have focused on principals in poverty-stricken areas and not on those in ethnic minority areas (Greaves et al., 2014; Mowat, 2019). The purpose of the current study is to address this research gap by focusing on the perceptions and practices of principals regarding students’ social mobility within a minority group. Building on the social-ecological model (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), which emphasizes the interconnectedness among various subsystems within the educational landscape and the impact of contextual factors on students’ outcomes, the study aims to explore this topic through a holistic approach that examines how different members of the educational realm perceive the role of school principals regarding the social mobility of students from a minority group. For this purpose, two research questions were formulated:
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used Research Design This is a qualitative multiple-case study that addresses the phenomenon from a holistic point of view. The principals’ perceptions and practices are examined from multiple perspectives – of the principals themselves and other school/community members. Participants The study was conducted in four middle and secondary schools that operate under the Arab education system in Israel. Each school consists of 700–900 students in 24–31 classes, within various urban or rural settings and diverse socio-economic backgrounds. Fifteen interviewees from each school participated in the study, making for a total of 60 interviewees. The subjects from each school were the two principals of the school (middle school and secondary school), the regional supervisor of the Ministry of Education, four teachers, four parents, and four students. Data collection Two research methods were used in the study: interviews and observations. This combination facilitated a deeper understanding of the participants’ voices and the exposure to multiple perspectives. The interviews were conducted over five months, from February 2022 to June 2022. They were semi-structured, in-depth interviews and adapted to the participants, meaning that slightly different questions were formulated for the respective participants. For instance, the principals were asked: “What is the role of the school principal when it comes to students’ ability to advance in society as they mature?” The teachers, on the other hand, were asked: “What does your school do to promote the social mobility of students?” Moreover, two full-day “semi-open” observations (Karniely, 2010) were conducted in the schools, focusing on the principals within their domain and their interactions with other members of the school and society, such as teachers, students, and parents. Data analysis The data were analyzed through a categorical content analysis perspective. The identification and analysis of the themes were made based on the content of the interviewees. The analysis was conducted in a three-stage process: condensing, coding, and categorizing. This process was carried out for each school separately, and then, a comparison was made between the cases (Krippendorff, 2018). Trustworthiness The researchers of this study come from different backgrounds: the first author has extensive teaching experience in the Arab education sector and is currently an educational leadership researcher, and the other has an extensive educational leadership research experience in the Jewish education sector. The researchers’ joint work has made them more aware of the conceptual and methodological issues pertaining to the current research. Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings When the four case studies and the themes that emerged from each case were compared, six shared categories were found regarding the principals’ perceptions and practices of promoting social mobility among their students: Grades and achievements – Academic achievements are important, but they should co-exist with the promotion of other aspects among students; Emotional and social aspects – Emotional and social support play a significant role in promoting students’ future social mobility; Social justice – Promoting social justice principles and perceptions is important for students’ motivation for social mobility; Leadership and empowerment – Empowerment and leadership processes among students are important for their future social mobility; Skills and abilities – Developing different and diverse skills among students is important; 21st century and technology skills – Students should be taught about technological and 21st-century skills. Within each of these categories, the principals employed various practices to promote students’ social mobility and perceived these practices as efficient in achieving their intended goals, equipping students with future social mobility tools, and helping them integrate into the broader society. The conclusions focus on the holistic approach the educational leadership employed in the entire educational process. It can be derived that the promotion of academic achievements and grades should be carried out within a broad framework of promoting students’ general abilities and skills. The findings emphasize the importance of a principal in leading students to activism and social involvement, which can also affect the students’ future, social mobility, and integration. The study highlights the instrumental leadership role as a means of promoting social mobility among students from minority groups. 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