14. Communities, Families and Schooling in Educational Research
Paper
Roles of Shadow Education in Parental Responses to Their Dissatisfaction with Schooling
Vít Šťastný
Charles University, Czech Republic
Presenting Author: Šťastný, Vít
Private tutoring for students in academic school subjects, known as shadow education (SE), is on the rise globally and in Europe (Bray, 2021). Recent evidence shows its growth even in countries where it was previously rare, such as Scandinavian countries (Cristensen & Zhang, 2021), and it is most prevalent in southern and eastern Europe. In post-socialist European countries, studies indicate significant parts of lower-secondary student cohorts have direct experience with private tutoring, exceeding 50% in Slovakia, Poland, Croatia, or Ukraine (Silova, 2010). In the Czech Republic, the focus of this study, 47% of lower-secondary students indicated taking private lessons or courses during their studies (Šťastný, 2023). These figures indicate that shadow education is a major phenomenon in many European countries. Research on this phenomenon unveiled its potential negative implications for educational inequalities, as it poses a financial burden to families, and pointed to corruption risks and unethical practices when provided by teachers to their own students (Bray, 2021).
Drivers of the demand for shadow education include factors related to pupils, parents, schools, education policy, and/or society. Parents, who typically pay for the service, play a crucial role in the decision to arrange private tutoring (Kazimzade & Jokić, 2013). An important parent-related factor is their (dis)satisfaction with schooling and the perceived quality of school instruction. For example, Bregvadze’s (2012) study of Georgian parents found that lower perceived quality of mainstream education was related to a higher probability of procuring private tutoring for their children. However, in China, Liu and Bray (2017, p. 214) found no correlation between satisfaction about schoolteacher and the use of private tutoring. Liu and Bray concluded that “without deeper understanding of teacher’s behaviour and students’ and/or parents’ decision-making processes about seeking tutoring, the relationship between students’ satisfaction with school teacher and the demand for tutoring is difficult to identify” and suggested that it “remains a question for further study, especially through qualitative research.” A study from the Czech Republic found that the worse students perceive the school quality of instruction in Mathematics or national language, the more likely they are to take private tutoring, but there is no such association in English (Šťastný & Chvál, 2023).
The quantitative data could not satisfactorily explain the identified relationship, therefore, the present study addresses this research gap and aims to scrutinize the relationship between shadow education and parental (dis)satisfaction with schooling leading to their decision to buy shadow education. The overall aim of the study is to identify different roles shadow education plays in parental responses to dissatisfaction with schooling. Two research questions guide the study:
RQ1: What are the reasons for parental dissatisfaction leading them to employ private tutoring for their child?
RQ2: What roles does private tutoring play for parents who voice concerns, wish to exit, or remain loyal despite their dissatisfaction with their child's schooling?
The study adopts Hirschmann’s (1970) theory of Exit, Voice, and Loyalty that explains individual and collective responses to dissatisfaction within an organization or system. Exit refers to individuals leaving the organization or system in response to dissatisfaction, seeking alternatives elsewhere (school choice and transferring the child to another school). Voice involves expressing concerns, grievances, or suggestions to bring about positive change from within the organization (the child's school). Loyalty is the inclination of individuals to remain committed to the organization (the school) despite dissatisfaction, often in the hope that issues will be addressed over time. The study contributes to shadow education literature by offering a nuanced view of how parents who are dissatisfied with the school education employ shadow education in situations when they choose to exit, voice or remain loyal.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe study is a part of a larger research project whose main aim was to analyze the views, attitudes, and opinions of parents in relation to arranging private tutoring for their children, to scrutinize the processes of their decision-making and their dynamics, and to identify key factors affecting these decisions (e.g., types, modes, subjects or providers of private tutoring etc.).
Sampling and data collection
The present study draws on qualitative data collected through semi-structured interviews from 65 parents from February 2022 to December 2023 in the Czech Republic. A maximum variation sampling strategy was employed to gain insights from different types of parents of lower secondary pupils who intended to procure or already procured shadow education for their child. These parents found themselves in various life contexts, including those living in urban and rural areas, living solo or in full family, with lower as well as higher incomes and education levels, to achieve theoretical saturation of the sample. Interviews were conducted both in person and using online tools. After each interview, a quick survey was administered to collect more systematic data about the families’ socio-economic, educational, and cultural background. With 25 parents, follow up interviews were conducted several months after the original interview to capture how the situation evolved. Interview structure corresponded with overall project’s research questions and thematic foci and included sections about parents’ motivation to procure private tutoring, choices about private tutoring attributes, and evaluation of private tutoring impacts.
Data analysis
Every audio recording was transcribed and then analyzed using NVivo 12 software. The coding and subsequent analysis proceeded in several steps. First, open coding, inspired by grounded theory approach (Corbin & Strauss, 2015) was conducted inductively on the interview transcripts. At the same time, deductive codes (Braun & Clarke, 2006) were applied to segments that corresponded with a predefined coding frame derived from the thematic sections of the interview protocol. Further, theoretically driven coding was applied after the identification of a suitable theoretical framework to account for themes in data segments related to the Exit, Voice and Loyalty behavior of parents. The coded materials were then analyzed, with a usage of analytical memos and matrices as a support, and general patterns in the dataset were identified to produce the research report (Gerson & Damaske, 2020).
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsShadow education plays different roles in parents’ responses to their dissatisfaction with the current schooling experience of their child. First, shadow education is a supportive measure that facilitates the parental attempts for exit from the current school, when the transfer to new desired school is conditioned by entrance examinations. For example, in the dataset, a group of parents was unsatisfied with the student composition of the classroom in the regular track, and sought their children to switch to a parallel academic track school that required success in entrance examinations. Second, dissatisfied parents also voiced their concerns when they felt the school could or should be able to address them and when they felt that their voice would not have negative consequences for their child. In such case, shadow education assumes a role of a supportive argument when voicing parental dissatisfaction. In communication with schools, parents were mentioning the private tutoring costs incurred “involuntarily” to them due to the inability of school to provide high quality education and satisfy their child’s educational needs. One parent even complained at the school inspectorate and used materials from private tutoring of her child to support her cause. Third, parents remained loyal despite their dissatisfaction with the school, hoped for the improvement of the situation, but at the same time did not voice their concerns for various reasons. Shadow education played a supplementary role compensating for the shortcomings at school, and was a price to pay for the loyalty of dissatisfied parents.
ReferencesBraun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative research in psychology, 3(2), 77–101.
Bray, M. (2021). Shadow education in Europe: Growing prevalence, underlying forces, and policy implications. ECNU Review of education, 4(3), 442–475.
Bregvadze, T. (2012). Analysing the shadows: Private tutoring as a descriptor of the education system in Georgia. International Education Studies, 5(6), 80–89.
Christensen, S., & Zhang, W. (2021). Shadow education in the Nordic countries: An emerging phenomenon in comparative perspective. ECNU Review of Education, 4(3), 431–441.
Corbin, J. & Strauss, A. (2015). Basics of qualitative research. 4th edition. Sage.
Gerson, K., & Damaske, S. (2020). The science and art of interviewing. Oxford University Press.
Hirschman, A. O. (1972). Exit, voice, and loyalty: Responses to decline in firms, organizations, and states. Harvard university press.
Kazimzade, E., & Jokić, B. (2013). The roles of parents in the decision concerning the use of private tutoring services. In B. Jokić (Ed.), Emerging from the shadow: A Comparative Qualitative Exploration of Private Tutoring in Eurasia (pp. 209–238). Network of Education Policy Centers (NEPC), Zagreb.
Silova, I. (2010). Private tutoring in Eastern Europe and Central Asia: Policy choices and implications. Compare, 40(3), 327–344.
Šťastný, V. (2023). Shadow education in the context of early tracking: between-track differences in the Czech Republic. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 53(3), 380–398.
Šťastný, V., & Chvál, M. (2023). Different subjects, different incentives: Private tutoring and perceived instructional quality in Czech lower-secondary schools. International Journal of Educational Development, 98, 102737.
14. Communities, Families and Schooling in Educational Research
Paper
Fathers’ Sense of Competence for Positive Parenting
Beatriz Rodriguez-Ruiz, Raquel-Amaya Martínez-González, María-Teresa Iglesias-García
University of Oviedo, Spain
Presenting Author: Rodriguez-Ruiz, Beatriz
Children are socially perceived with need of protection and support (UNICEF, 2022). Parents as reference figures try to provide them with opportunities and resources to develop their full personal potential. However, their parenting role is conditioned by many factors, as parenting competences. According to Masten & Curtis (2000), these competences can be understood as skills, abilities and attitudes to educate their children according to their needs and developmental stage, as well as family circumstances. Parenting competences make it easier for adults to organize family life, develop positive educational styles and promote the full development of their children (Ponzetti, 2016).
However, performing the parenting role may generate some extend of uncertainty amongst parents (Martínez-González et al, 2016), as evidenced when they look for advice to school or social services and other entities. In this way, the Council of Europe Recommendation 2006/19 on policies to promote positive parenting in Europe suggest that European Union states support parents for upbringing and educating their children. Álvarez et al. (2020) analyze how positive parenting is linked to the attachment theory, parental parenting practices of self-regulation, sense of parental competence, family stress and social support, all of these being key factors for parenting and socialization during childhood. These are key issues to promote positive family relationships through assertive communication, coherent norms and limits to children's behavior, positive strategies for conflict resolution, thus avoiding any kind of violence and children maltreatment. These skills should be expected in both parents to be put into practice since the early childhood developmental stage of their children.
Previous theoretical and empirical studies show that mothers are traditionally more involved in the upbringing and education of their children (Nunes & Ayala-Nunes, 2017). Research conducted by Martínez-González et al. (2021) indicate that mothers tend to show greater communication competence than fathers when interacting with children and in fostering their self-esteem. On the other hand, the maternal sense of competence is an important predictor of mothers’ abilities to provide an adaptive, stimulating, and nurturing child-rearing environment (Locke & Prinz, 2002). This sense of parenting competence should be also expected on the part of the fathers as well (Petch & Halford, 2008). According to Schoppe-Sullivan et al., 2008), fathers’ sense of parenting competences is related with their involvement in children rearing practices. Fathers who perceive themselves as competent in their role are likely to be more effective in the care of their children (Gilmore & Cuskelly, 2008).
According to these ideas, this study focuses on analyzing emotional and social parenting competences of fathers with 6-12 years old children considering educational and contextual factors which could influence them. These competences being Self-regulation, Self-esteem, Communication and Non-imposition taking into account previous studies conducted by the authors (Martínez-González et al., 2021). The specific research questions addressed were: Does the fathers' educational level influence their parenting skills, and do these skills differ according to their children's school level and the family rural or urban background?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe research sample was composed of 760 Spanish fathers with children between 6 to 12 years old who lived in urban (73%) and rural areas (27%). Compulsory, high school and higher education levels were considered regarding their literacy standards. The distribution of these categories in the sample was: 32.4% higher education; 41.1% high school; and 26.6% compulsory education. According to the children's school level, 36.6% attended the first or second year of primary education (Primary I), 30.1% attended the third or fourth year (Primary II), and 33.3% attended the fifth or sixth year (Primary III).
An exploratory study was carried out collecting information with the Scale of Emotional and Social Parenting Competences for Parents of Adolescents (ECOPES-P) (Martínez-González et al., unpublished) to analyze 4 factors: Emotional Self-Control, Self-Esteem, Imposition, and Communication. Questions were followed by a Likert type scale of four categories: 1-never to 4-always. Skewness and kurtosis [−1; +1] were calculated to check variables normality (DeCarlo, 1997). The average and the standard deviation were calculated. Socio-demographic variables on children' school level, father' educational background and rural/urban context were considered to identify potential statistical differences in the four factors of the scale. To identify significant statistical differences on fathers' parenting skills according to their literacy level (Compulsory, High School and Higher Education) and according to children’ school level, ANOVA analysis was performed, as well as post-hoc pairwise comparisons through Scheffe's (p<.05). To check contextual (rural and urban) significant statistical differences on parenting skills Students' t (p<.05) was calculated. The analyses were performed with SPSS 27.0.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsResults indicate a medium-high level of parenting sense of competence of the fathers in the sample. This being higher regarding their self-esteem. Children's school level made significant differences in three items of the scale: "I know how to relax and control my emotions in front of my children" (Selg-Regulation) (p = .005), "When my children disobey me, I impose to solve the situation" (Imposition) (p = .042) and "On a daily basis I usually tell my children the positive things I see in them" (Communication) (p = .29), showing that these behaviors are more frequent among fathers of younger children (Primary I). The fathers´ educational level also showed significant differences in Imposition (p = .000). Fathers with lower levels of education (Compulsory Education) were more likely to use imposition parental styles with their children. Regarding the background (rural or urban) no significant differences were observed in any factors or in any of the items of the scale.
The results suggest that the fathers in the sample tend to perceive themselves with self-confidence in their parenting competences. However, those with less academic background and older children might need to reinforce them as protective factors for children’s upbring. Thus, it seems necessary to support fathers in promoting their skills to gain better quality in fathers-children’s relations. This could be addressed through positive parenting programs and taking into account a gender approach.
ReferencesÁlvarez, M., Byrne, S., & Rodrigo, M. J. (2020). Patterns of individual change and program satisfaction in a positive parenting program for parents at psychosocial risk. Child & Family Social Work, 25(2), 230–239. https://doi.org/10.1111/.cfs.12678
DeCarlo, L. T. (1997). On the meaning and use of kurtosis. Psychological Methods, 2(3), 292–307. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.2.3.292
European Council (2006). Recommendation Rec(2006)19 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on policy to support positive parenting. Explanatory Report. European Council.
Gilmore, L., & Cuskelly, M. (2009). Factor structure of the parenting sense of competence scale using a normative sample. Child: care, health and development, 35(1), 48-55. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2008.00867.x
Locke, L. M., & Prinz, R. J. (2002). Measurement of parental discipline and nurturance. Clinical Psychology Review, 22, 895–929.
Martínez González, R. A., Rodríguez Ruiz, B., & Iglesias García, M. T. (2021). Comparación de competencias parentales en padres y en madres con hijos e hijas adolescentes. Aula Abierta, 50(4), 777-786. https://doi.org/10.17811/rifie.50.4.2021.777-786
Martínez-González, R. A., Rodríguez-Ruiz, B., Álvarez-Blanco, L., & Becedóniz-Vázquez, C. (2016). Evidence in promoting positive parenting through the Program-Guide to Develop Emotional Competences. Psychosocial intervention, 25(2), 111-117.
Masten, A. S., & Curtis, W. J. (2000). Integrating competence and psychopathology: Pathways toward a comprehensive science of adaption in development. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 529-550.
Nunes, C., & Ayala-Nunes, L. (2017). Parenting sense of competence in at psychosocial risk families and child well-being. Bordon. Revista de Pedagogía, 69(1), 155-168. https://doi.org/10.13042/Bordon.2016.48589
Petch, J., & Halford, W. K. (2008). Psycho-education to enhance couples' transition to parenthood. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(7), 1125-1137.
Ponzetti, J. J. (2016). Evidence-based parenting education: A global perspective. Routledge.
Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., Brown, G. L., Cannon, E. A., Mangelsdorf, S. C., & Sokolowski, M. S. (2008). Maternal gatekeeping, coparenting quality, and fathering behavior in families with infants. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(3), 389–398. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.22.3.389
UNICEF (2022). Derecho a la participación de niños, niñas y adolescente. UNICEF.
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