14. Communities, Families and Schooling in Educational Research
Paper
Family Memory and Official History About the Recent Past in Cyprus in Conflict.
Melina Foris
UCL Institute of Education
Presenting Author: Foris, Melina
My paper unveils social tensions in the field of education as it explores the relationship of family memory and children’s history learning about the troubled events of 1974 in Cyprus. It explores how memories and beliefs of those who survived the traumatic events of 1974 in Cyprus are remembered and used to build self-narratives for communicating them to the younger generation. It shows that these survivors demand their own voice when talking about 1974 and are unwilling to let the state claim ownership of the past. It reveals that participants in my study see politics as a barrier to having an authentic representation of the past and undertake initiatives to help their children draw links between the troubled past and present. They regard the history textbook as vehicle transferring the State’s approach to 1974 and teachers as the public servants to distribute this official narrative and claim their own share when talking about the past. In this context, they undertake initiatives enabling them to link their past to their children’s present such as storytelling, witnessing funerals of missing persons and visiting places with certain meanings for their family histories. These memory-sites stage adults’ stories and are appreciated as enabling youngsters to inherit the family history and values while acknowledging their positionality in society.
Based on data derived from the research I conducted for my doctoral thesis and supported by empirical research from the settings of Cyprus and especially of Northern Ireland, where the most salient research related to my research objectives is found, this paper seeks to answer these two research questions:
- How do family members of students approach official memory as this is mediated to their children at school?
- To what extent, how and why do family members convey their memories and knowledge about the past to their children?
Memory and narrative permeate this research as theoretical concepts for understanding how the past influences the memories and beliefs of people and how they remember the past, construct self-narratives, and mediate these to their youngsters.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThis study adopted a qualitative research approach and followed a purposive-sampling approach that encouraged the recruitment of participants who could contribute to the research aims and the thorough exploration of all relevant research issues. Research data were collected a.via one-on-one semi-structured interviews with 5 history educators, 23 parents or grandparents and 10 joint interviews with (grand) parents and their children, b. through the methods of document analysis on the history textbook and c. observing classes about recent Cypriot history. Narratives were explored as an experience and a construct, drawing on Labovian structural narrative analysis, which enabled me to follow the narrator’s stance. Content analysis was applied to textual data and provided a wider understanding on the knowledge conveyed to the reader through the narrative and sources of the history book. It yielded further information on how the state seeks to predispose readers towards the past through this master historical narrative.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsResearch data reveal educational debates at different levels, between and within social groups in the field of education in Cyprus. They show that there is not a collaborative relationship or a shared understanding between families, teachers and schools about what children are expected to know about their recent past. Schools are seen by families as places to disseminate the official narrative of the past and the history textbooks and teachers as vehicles to do so. These findings lead us to understand why family members demand and try to be involved in their children’s learning. They indicate the need to enhance our knowledge about family-intergenerational memory and emotional issues in history learning in Cyprus and other conflict-ridden societies. Most importantly, these findings enable us to see the importance to further investigate intergenerational narratives as they may help children to assess the past and to become aware of social phenomena or they may distort their ideas about the past, adopting the adults’ beliefs (patriotic, political, social etc), memories and knowledge of the past.
ReferencesAmadini, M. (2015). Transition to parenthood and intergenerational relationships: the ethical value of family memory, Ethics and Education, 10 (1), 36-48, DOI:10.1080/17449642.2014.998022
Andrews, M., Squire, C., & Tamboukou, M. (eds) (2011). Doing Narrative Research. London: Sage Publications.
Assmann, A., (2006). Memory, Individual and Collective, In R. Goodin & C. Tilly, (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Contextual Political Analysis (pp.212-224). New York: Oxford University Press.
Barton, K., & McCully, A. (2010). “You can form your own point of view”: Internally persuasive discourse in Northern Ireland students’ encounters with history. Teachers College Record, 112, 142–181.
Bush, K. & Saltarelli, D. (2000). The two faces of education in ethnic conflict: Towards a peace building education for children. Florence: UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund) Innocenti Research Centre.
Carretero, M. (2017). The teaching of recent and violent conflicts as challenges for history education. In History education and conflict transformation (pp. 341-377). London: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
Carretero, M. (2018). Imagining the Nation throughout School History Master Narratives. In Demantowsky, M. (ed.) Public History and School: International Perspectives (p. 97-108), Berlin: De Gruyter.
Christou, M. (2006). A double imagination: memory and education in Cyprus. Journal of Modern Greek Studies, 24(2), 285-306.
Conway, M. (2004). Identifying the past: An exploration of teaching and learning sensitive issues in history at secondary school level. Educate, 4(2), 66-79.
Fivush, R. (2008). Remembering and reminiscing: How individual lives are constructed in family narratives, Memory studies, 1(1), 49 – 58.
Fivush, R. & Merrill, N. (2016). An ecological systems approach to family narratives, Memory Studies, 9(3), 305– 314.
Foster, S.& Crawford, K. (2006). What Shall We Tell the Children? International Perspectives on School History Textbooks. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Labov, W. (1997). Some Further Steps in Narrative Analysis, Journal of Narrative and Life History, 7(1-4), 395 – 415. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/jnlh.7.49som
Leonard, P. (2014). Echoes from the Past: Intergenerational Memories in Cyprus. Children and Society, 28, 66–76.
Merrill, N., & Fivush, R. (2016). Intergenerational narratives and identity across Development, Developmental Review 40, 72–92.
Wertsch, J. (2008). The narrative organization of collective memory. Ethos, 36(1), 120-135.
Wertsch, J. (2012). Texts of Memory and Texts of History, L2 Journal, 4, 9-20.
Wertsch, J. (2021). How nations remember: a narrative approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
14. Communities, Families and Schooling in Educational Research
Paper
Longitudinal Associations between Child Behavior and Parental Depressive Symptoms: A Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model
Zhiyang Feng, Asko Tolvanen, Minna Torppa, Marja-Kristiina Lerkkanen, Kenneth Eklund, Eija Pakarinen
University of Jyväskylä, Finland
Presenting Author: Feng, Zhiyang
In past decades, a big number of research (e.g., Hanington et al., 2012; Reupert & Maybery, 2016; Vrolijk et al., 2023; Yamamoto & Keogh, 2018; Yang & Williams, 2021) related to both maternal and paternal depressive symptoms have been applied to examine their associations with not only child factors (child behavior, child development, child wellbeing etc.,) but also many other family functions (marital conflict, parenting practices, parenting self-efficacy etc.,). Likewise, child behavior, mainly behavior problems have been widely studied to broaden understanding of the related influence and interventions (Guajardo et al., 2009; Linville et al., 2010; Tømmerås et al., 2018). However, positive aspects, for example, to what extent child prosocial and parental wellbeing are associated with each other, have not gained enough attention (Gross et al., 2008; Putnick et al., 2018). Besides, there are rather a few studies examining the reciprocal associations between child behavior and parental wellbeing, compared with much previous unidirectional research (Davis & Qi, 2022); let alone extensive studies in investigating longitudinal effects between child behavior and both parents’ mental health systematically in the family context (Gross et al., 2008).
In previous literature, the family has been widely believed as a crucial context in promoting both children and parents’ inclusive wellbeing. Because factors of family members in the family context, such as child behavior, child development, child wellbeing, parental competence, and parental wellbeing etc., are intertwined with each other intensively. (Blair et al., 2014; Berryhill, 2016; Bodenmann et al., 2008; Farmer & Lee, 2011; MacKinnon et al., 2018; Turner et al., 1987). In particular, many family system theorists (Beavers & Hampson, 2000; Bowen, 1966; Bronfenbrenner, 1977, 1979; Cox & Paley, 1997,2003) suggested that the family should be studied as systems to better understanding family function like family members’ development, wellbeing, and relationships. Extending the previous literature, we examine longitudinal associations between parental depressive symptoms and child behavior at three timepoints across pre-school age (4 and 6 years old) to school age (9-years-old) including both maternal and paternal depressive symptoms and child behavior problems (both externalizing and internalizing behaviors) and adaptive skills. In addition, we add an important methodological advancement, the usage of RI-CLPM model which distinguish between- and within- person variances to provide accurate results and correct interpretation of the correlations across age.
The aims of the current study were twofold:
1. Are the development of child’s behavior (externalizing behavior, internalizing behavior and adaptive skills) and parental depressive symptoms associated at the between-person level? That is, do parents with higher depressive symptoms also have children with more behavior problems/less adaptive behavior and vice versa?
2. Do child’s behavior (externalizing behavior, internalizing behavior and adaptive skills) and parental depressive symptoms predict one another at the within-person level? That is, do increased parental depressive symptoms at the subsequent time point predict increased behavior problems/less adaptive behavior and vice versa?
Hopefully, our multi-group, multi-level, and multi-time spots models may provide a better understanding of family dynamics, contextual influences, and bring together researchers, practitioners, policymakers to discuss some broader implications of possible intervention and prevention at various levels to support both child and parental well-being.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe participants (n= 200; 106 boys, 94 girls) were followed from birth in the Jyvaskyla Longitudinal Study of Dyslexia (JLD) (Lohvansuu et al., 2021). The current analyses included data from children at age 4, 6 and 9. With the help of maternity clinics throughout the Central Finland, participating parents had taken skills test for the parental diagnosis in terms of reading, spelling, and vocabulary related cognition by paper and pencil at the university before the child’s birth. Half of the families with one or both parents diagnosed as dyslexia were set as at-risk for dyslexia group, and the other half belonged to the control group (Leinonen et al., 2001). All families were native Finnish speaking Caucasian. In addition, there were no significant differences in general mental, physical, or sensory assessments between all children when they were born.
A Finnish translation (Parhiala et al., 2015) of Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC) (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1992) reported by parents was used to measure child behavior when the children were 4, 6 and 9 years old. Whilst, A Finnish translation (Aro et al., 2009) of the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck et al., 1961) was applied to measure parental depressive symptoms.
Firstly, distributions of variables were examined by and Pearson correlations between child behavior and parental depressive symptoms were calculated using IBM SPSS Statistics 28 program. In order to handle measurement error, latent factors were used in further analysis. Each variable at each time point was divided to be three sub sums based on factor loadings to create the latent factor. Then the Mplus statistical package (version 8.10) was used to carry out the further Structural Equation Models modeling. To answer the research questions, random intercept cross-lagged models (RI-CLPM) were utilized (ref) to test autoregression and cross-lagged effects when the variation between individual levels (random intercepts) are controlled.
Factorial invariance holds between control and comparison groups were tested as the first step in this research. Four models with full information maximum likelihood increasing hierarchically the invariance constraints were estimated. Second step is to test if groups covariance structure is equal between groups. Bayes method was utilized in estimation because model complexity increases considerably. At last, random intercept cross-lagged models were used to test autoregression and cross-lagged effect when the variation between individual levels (random intercepts) are controlled.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsDespite the increase trend in research examining not only unidirectional, reciprocal associations but also transitional mechanism between child behavior and parental wellbeing including parents’ stress, depressive symptoms etc., Nevertheless, few studies have considered family as a whole in promoting family wellbeing. Also, there are contradictory findings regarding how parents and children influence each other in different study circumstance like dataset from different countries. Hence, the current research examined the longitudinal associations between child’s behavior (externalizing, internalizing behavior and adaptive skills) and parental (both fathers and mothers) depressive symptoms systematically extended from family system theories in the Finnish context to broaden the understanding of family function under different national and social system.
The results showed that there are significant between – person correlations between maternal depressive symptoms and child internalizing behavior, between maternal depressive symptoms and child adaptive skills, and between paternal depressive symptoms and child internalizing behavior. That is, a father or mother with higher depressive symptoms also have children with more internalizing behavior and vice versa, whilst a mother with higher depressive symptoms has children with less adaptive skills and vice versa. No significant within- person cross-lagged associations were found which indicated that increased parental depressive symptoms at the subsequent time point do not predict increased behavior problems/less adaptive behavior and vice versa.
The findings thus suggested that besides mothers’ perspective and child behavior problems, other essential aspects such as fathers’ perspective, child positive adjustment, child-driven effects, positive effects on each other among family members, between- and within- person effects should also be considered into future investigations from a family system perspective in understanding family functioning and potentially promoting family well-being.
ReferencesAro, T., Poikkeus, A., Eklund, K., Tolvanen, A., Laakso, M., Viholainen, H., . . . Ahonen, T. (2009). Effects of Multidomain Risk Accumulation on Cognitive, Academic, and Behavioural Outcomes. Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology, 38(6), 883-898.
Beavers, R., & Hampson, R. B. (2000). The Beavers Systems Model of Family Functioning. Journal of family therapy, 22(2), 128-143.
Beck, A. T., Ward, C., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. J. A. G. P. (1961). Beck depression inventory (BDI). Arch Gen Psychiatry, 4(6), 561-571.
Bowen, M. (1966). The use of family theory in clinical practice. Comprehensive psychiatry, 7(5), 345-374.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32, 513–531.
Cox, M., & Paley, B. (1997). Families as systems. Annual review of psychology, 48(1), 243-267.
Reciprocal models of child behavior and depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers in a sample of children at risk for early conduct problems. Journal of family psychology, 22(5), 742.
Hamaker, E. L., Kuiper, R. M., & Grasman, R. P. P. P. (2015). A Critique of the Cross-Lagged Panel Model. Psychological methods, 20(1), 102-116.
Leinonen, S., Muller, K., Leppanen, P., Aro, M., Ahonen, T., & Lyytinen, H. (2001). Heterogeneity in adult dyslexic readers: Relating processing skills to the speed and accuracy of oral text reading. Reading & writing, 14(3-4), 265-296.
Linville, D., Chronister, K., Dishion, T., Todahl, J., Miller, J., Shaw, D., . . . Wilson, M. (2010). A Longitudinal Analysis of Parenting Practices, Couple Satisfaction, and Child Behavior Problems. Journal of marital and family therapy, 36(2), 244-255.
Lohvansuu, K., Torppa, M., Ahonen, T., Eklund, K., Hämäläinen, J. A., Leppänen, P. H. T., & Lyytinen, H. (2021). Unveiling the Mysteries of Dyslexia-Lessons Learned from the Prospective Jyväskylä Longitudinal Study of Dyslexia. Brain sciences, 11(4), 427.
Parhiala, P., Torppa, M., Eklund, K., Aro, T., Poikkeus, A., Heikkilä, R., & Ahonen, T. (2015). Psychosocial Functioning of Children with and without Dyslexia: A Follow-up Study from Ages Four to Nine. Dyslexia (Chichester, England), 21(3), 197-211.
Reynolds, C. R., & Kamphaus, R. W. (1992). Behavioral Assessment System for Children. Manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
Reupert, A., & Maybery, D. (2016). What do we know about families where parents have mental illness? A systematic review. Child & Youth Services, 37(2), 98–111.
14. Communities, Families and Schooling in Educational Research
Paper
Creating Parent Capacity in Cases of Selective Mutism.
Heidi Omdal
University of Agder, Norway
Presenting Author: Omdal, Heidi
Background
Early intervention and close cooperation with parents is crucial to prevent serious mental health problems in children with selective mutism (SM) (Omdal, 2008). Without any guidance from professionals with SM expertise, parents and professionals are potential risk factors for the child’s progress (Omdal, 2014). This paper considers the innovation process in a parent guidance group with nine SM families phasing-in an authoritative parenting style (Baumrind, 1991; Snyder et al., 2013; Wentzel, 2002) in interactions with their SM child.
Aim and conceptual framework
The SM child’s constant withdrawal from speech interferes with learning and social communication and gets more and more ingrained the longer it lasts (Omdal, 2007). Previous research suggests that SM parents tend to overprotect the SM child (Omdal, 2014; Omdal & Galloway, 2008). Thus, this group of children may have few coping experiences in the environment. We started a parent guidance group with nine families having a child with SM in 2017, holding six meetings where parents exchanged experiences and received guidance from the researcher. This study investigates the possibilities and challenges in parents’ implementation of an authoritative parenting style. Authoritative parents prevent over-dependency in interactions with their child (Baumrind, 1991; Snyder et al., 2013; Wentzel, 2002). Egan’s skilled-helper model (Egan, 2014) was used as a framework in the parent guidance. The model is organized in three steps: (1) the current picture; (2) the preferred picture; and (3) the way forward. Participants are encouraged to be active during the entire process of implementing goals, decisions, and actions towards a changed situation. Continuous evaluation throughout the process is necessary to reach valued outcomes. The study questions whether Egan’s skilled-helper model is adequate in phasing-in the principles of the innovation. Fullan (2016) emphasizes that a strong collective orientation strengthens participants’ motivation for change. Thus, an effective collaborative culture and common learning processes among parents and parents and teachers might increase capacity (Hargreaves et al., 2018; Leithwood, 2019).
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThis paper is based on the results gathered by the author during the first year of implementation. The results are gathered from: (1) focus group-interviews with the parents who were responsible for creating the capacity in each SM case in the parent guidance group; and (2) participating parents’ written answers to questions arising from Egan’s (2014) skilled-helper model in between the parent meetings. Content analysis (Patton, 2002) is used in the analysis. Common themes across cases are analyzed in NVivo (Richards, 2002). The parents gave their informed consent to participate, in accordance with the ethical guidelines given by The National Committee for Research Ethics in the Social Sciences and the Humanities (NESH, 2016). We search for the participants’ ‘real world experiences’ (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018) as objectively as possible. Our goal is to interpret the actions and social world from the interviewees’ own perspectives (Bryman, 2016).
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsA common theme among the families was how to find the right balance between supporting and challenging the SM child in communication with others. How to promote greater independence between the child and the parents is the main question from the project. The participants found it helpful to get support from other parents. They struggled at Egan’s (2014) third step, the action level. It was hard to implement the evidence-based principles of the innovation in their own situation. More supervision and support after the end of the project year was needed.
Theoretical and educational significance
In cases of selective mutism, capacity building is required to move from silence to speech. Parents are viewed as crucial change agents for the SM child. Practical implications for parent-teacher-cooperation are highlighted.
ReferencesBaumrind, D. (1991). Parenting styles and adolescent development. In J. Brooks-Gunn, Lerner, R. M. & Petersen, A. C. (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of adolescence. (pp. 746-758.). New York: Garland.
Bryman, A. (2016). Social Research Methods. (5th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Denzin, N.K. & Lincoln, Y.S. (2018). The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research (5th ed.). Los Angeles, California: Sage.
Egan, G. (2014). The skilled helper: a client-centred approach (10th ed.). Hampshire: Cengage Learning.
Fullan, M. (2016). The new meaning of educational change (5th ed.). London: Routledge.
Hargreaves, A., Shirley, D., Wangia, S., Bacon, C., & D’Angelo, M. (2018). Leading from the middle: spreading learning, wellbeing, and identity across Ontario. Toronto, Canada: Council of Ontario Directors of Education.
Leithwood, K.A. (2019). Leadership Development on a Large Scale: Lessons for Long-Term Success. First edition. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin, Sage Publications.
Omdal, H. (2014). The child who doesn’t speak. Understanding and supporting children with selective mutism. Kristiansand: Portal Academic.
Omdal, H. (2008). Including children with selective mutism in mainstream schools and kindergartens: problems and possibilities. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 12(3), 301–315. DOI: 10.1080/13603110601103246.
Omdal, H. (2007). Can adults who have recovered from selective mutism in childhood and adolescence tell us anything about the nature of the condition and/or recovery from it? European Journal of Special Needs Education, 22 (3), 237-253. DOI: 10.1080/08856250701430323.
Omdal, H., & Galloway, D. (2008). Could selective mutism be re-conceptualised as a specific phobia of expressive speech? An exploratory post-hoc study. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 13 (2), 74-81. DOI: 10.1111/j. 1475-3588.2007. 00454.x.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods. (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.
Richards, L. (2002). Using NVivo in Qualitative Research. Melbourne: QSR International.
Snyder, J., Low, S., Bullard, L., Schrepferman, L., Wachlarowicz, M., Marvin, C. & Reed, A. (2013). Effective parenting practices: Social interaction learning theory and the role of emotion coaching and mindfulness. In R. E. Larzelere, A. Sheffield Morris & A. W. Harrist (red.), Authoritative Parenting: Synthesizing nurturance and discipline for optimal child development (s. 189-210). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
The National Committee for Research Ethics in the Social Sciences and the Humanities (NESH). (2016). Guidelines for Research Ethics in the Social Sciences, Humanities, Law and Theology. Oslo: The Norwegian National Research Ethics Committees.
Wentzel, K. R. (2002). Are Effective Teachers Like Good Parents? Teaching Styles and Student Adjustment in Early Adolescence. Child Development, 73(1), 287-301. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00406.
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