04. Inclusive Education
Paper
Observing Teaching Quality Differentially? Individual Cognitive Activation through Digital Storytelling in Inclusive Primary School Classes
Julia Warmdt, Sanna Pohlmann-Rother, Christoph Ratz
University of Wuerzburg, Germany
Presenting Author: Warmdt, Julia
„Structural and social inequality“ (Zengilowski et al., 2023, S. 1) as well as „mechanisms that reproduce injustice and inequality“ (MacKenzie, Chiang & Thurston, 2022, S. 1) shape schools and teaching. Concurrently, there is a normative demand for a culture of education and teaching that is sensitive towards heterogeneity and inclusion, which has been legally established throughout Europe since the ratification of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. The goal is to achieve collaborative learning and equal participation of all children, regardless of their learning conditions, in general mainstream education and the mainstream school system. The project focuses on inclusive primary school education, in which students with and without intellectual disabilities learn together. Consequently, a wide heterogeneity of individual learning conditions can be assumed (Ratz & Selmayr, 2021). The design of such inclusive instruction situation attributes potential to digital media because various opportunities for participation can be made accessible for a heterogenous student body through and with them (Kamin, 2020).
Digital media and the associated digitalization of all areas of live have, especially since the pandemic, shaped society and, consequently, school and education as whole. Generally, there is a consensus that the task of school education is to prepare all students for active engagement with and use of media, as well as reflection on media. Digital Storytelling presents an exemplary concept for designing inclusive digital teaching. Within the framework of Digital Storytelling, a literary story can be read and narrated using not only convention means (images, text) but also expanded ones (photo, video, audio). Due to the diverse, multimodal expressive possibilities, all children with heterogenous learning conditions can work on a common subject at different performance levels (Warmdt, Frisch, Ratz & Pohlmann-Rother, 2023).
Normatively, there is a demand to design such digitally inclusive instruction, like Digital Storytelling, with high quality. When looking at the current research discourse in German-speaking countries, it can be observed that publications on inclusive instruction (Bohl, 2017) and on instruction with digital media (Quast, Rubach & Lazarides, 2021) reference classical research on teaching quality and, consequently, cognitive activation. In cognitively activating instruction, the goal is to stimulate all learners according to their individual learning conditions to engage with challenging tasks that promote understanding and inference (Groß-Mlynek, Graf, Harring, Gabriel-Busse & Feldhoff, 2022, S. 1). In recent years, numerous German-language research projects on cognitive activation can be found, while in the international discourse, closely related concepts are often explored (e.g. „deeper learning“ by Meyer, Imhof, Coyle und Banerjee in 2018). When looking at the (subject-specific) operationalization and the mechanisms of action for cognitive activation, the research works exhibit a divergent and inconsistent picture (Groß-Mlynek et al., 2022, S. 3). One reason for this may be that the effects of cognitive activation in the studies are examined across the entire class rather than focusing on individual children (Begrich et al., 2023; Rieser & Decristan, 2023). Previous studies have often focused on the question of which an instructional approach leads to what effort or outcome however, individual influencing factors are mostly disregarded (Kunter & Ewald, 2016, S. 20). The individual and differential perspective in teaching quality research is the focus of the project. This is done using the example of individual cognitive activation in inclusive primary school instruction attended by students with and without intellectual disabilities, addressing the following two questions:
- Which individually cognitively activating teaching and learning situations can be described in inclusive small group work on Digital Storytelling?
- What differences in the number and type of codings for individual cognitive activation are evident for each student regarding the stigma surrounding intellectual disability?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedTo analyze individual cognitive activation at the instructional process level, a project week on Digital Storytelling was designed (a). It was conducted and videotaped in eight inclusive first and second-grade classes (b). The collected video data was then processed (c) and analyzed (d). The following sections will elaborate on these four methodological steps.
a) Design of the Project Week: In an iterative process, a project spanning five days on “Digital Storytelling mit Hund Milo” (Digital Storytelling with Dog Milo) (Warmdt & Frisch, 2023) was developed. Students were introduced to the multimodal storytelling features of the Book Creator app, which they then used on iPads to continue the story. On the last day of the project, students presented their multimodal work results.
b) Classroom Videography and Collection of Background Information: The study’s sample consists of eight inclusive first and second-grade classes in the state of Bavaria, Germany, with students, both those with and without intellectual disabilities. Teachers and students were videotaped from three different perspectives: inclusive small-group work, screencast on the iPad, and overall classroom activities. In addition, background information on students (e.g. literacy learning conditions) and teachers (e.g. beliefs about the use of digital media) were collected through a questionnaire.
c) Preparation and Transcription of Video Data: The data collection resulted in videos of 18 inclusive small groups, showcasing the interactions among the 38 first and second-grade students and their interactions with teachers while working on Digital Storytelling. The video data were processed using DaVinci Resolve software (cropping, anonymizing, synchronizing, etc.) and transcribed verbally and subsequently evaluated using the Interact software.
d) Inductive-Deductive Analysis of Video Data: The focus of the analysis is on an instructional phase on the fourth day of the project, where students digitally continue the story. The analysis was conducted with a content-structuring approach using qualitative content analysis, leading to the deductive-inductive development of a category system for individual cognitive activation. Each category was specified (through consensus coding) with descriptions, anchor examples, coding rules, and delimitation rules.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsIn the inclusive small-group work on Digital Storytelling, a total of 1927 codings for individual cognitive activation were identified for the 38 students. Eight different main categories for individual cognitive activation were observed, some of which were further differentiated down to the fourth sub-level: the development of one's own idea, activation of knowledge, content verification, reasoning, discussion of content, problem-solving, literary elaboration of an own literary idea, and linking different forms of representation or modalities (see Research Question 1). Regarding the frequency distributions for each main category, a divergent picture emerges. For example, students activate literary, media, or (written) language knowledge a total of 641 times during the small-group work phase, while they discuss the content of their ideas (N = 26) or provide reasoning for it (N = 32) much less frequently.
In addition to the divergent frequency distributions for each main category, there are also clear differences in the number and type of codings for each individual student regarding the stigma of intellectual disability (see Research Question 2). The analysis reveals that, on average, almost twice as many codings are assigned for elementary students without intellectual disabilities compared to children with intellectual disabilities. All main categories, except for the development of one's own idea and linking different forms of representation or modalities, are more frequently coded for elementary students without intellectual disabilities than for children with intellectual disabilities. The differences in the number and type of codings for individual cognitive activation due to the stigma of intellectual disability underscore the necessity of taking a differentiated approach to each individual student in teaching quality research in inclusive education focused on Digital Storytelling.
ReferencesBegrich, L., Praetorius, A.-K., Decristan, J., Fauth, B., Göllner, R., Herrmann, C. et al. (2023). Was tun? Perspektiven für eine Unterrichtsqualitätsforschung der Zukunft. Unterrichtswissenschaft, 51(1), 63–97.
Bohl, T. (2017). Umgang mit Heterogenität im Unterricht. In T. Bohl, J. Budde & M. Rieger-Ladich (Hrsg.), Umgang mit Heterogenität in Schule und Unterricht. Grundlagentheoretische Beiträge, empirische Befunde und didaktische Reflexionen (S. 257–273). Julius Klinkhardt.
Groß-Mlynek, L., Graf, T., Harring, M., Gabriel-Busse, K. & Feldhoff, T. (2022). Cognitive Activation in a Close-Up View: Triggers of High Cognitive Activity in Students During Group Work Phases. Frontiers in Education, 7, 1–12.
Kamin, A.-M. (2020). Digitale Bildung unter der Perspektive von Inklusion. Inklusive Medienbildung. Friedrich Jahresheft, (38), 90–92.
Kunter, M. & Ewald, S. (2016). Bedingungen und Effekte von Unterricht: Aktuelle Forschungsperspektiven aus der pädagogischen Psychologie. In N. McElvany, W. Bos, H.-G. Holtappels, M. M. Gebauer & F. Schwabe (Hrsg.), Bedingungen und Effekte guten Unterrichts (S. 9–32). Waxmann.
MacKenzie, A., Chiang, T.-H. & Thurston, A. (2022). New insights on the persistence and reproduction of educational inequality and injustice: Towards a synthesis of Nussbaum's capabilities approach and Bourdieu's theories. International Journal of Educational Research, 115.
Meyer, O., Imhof, M., Coyle, D. & Banerjee, M. (2018). Positive Learning and Pluriliteracies. In O. Zlatkin-Troitschanskaia, G. Wittum & A. Dengel (Hrsg.), Positive Learning in the Age of Information. A Blessing or a Curse? (S. 235–265). Springer VS.
Quast, J., Rubach, C. & Lazarides, R. (2021). Lehrkräfteeinschätzungen zu Unterrichtsqualität mit digitalen Medien: Zusammenhänge zur wahrgenommenen technischen Schulausstattung, Medienunterstützung, digitalen Kompetenzselbsteinschätzungen und Wertüberzeugungen. Zeitschrift für Bildungsforschung, (11), 309–341.
Ratz, C. & Selmayr, A. (2021). Schriftsprachliche Kompetenzen. In D. Baumann, W. Dworschak, M. Kroschewski, C. Ratz & A. Selmayr (Hrsg.), Schülerschaft mit dem Förderschwerpunkt geistige Entwicklung II (SFGE II) (117-134). Athena wbv media.
Rieser, S. & Decristan, J. (2023). Kognitive Aktivierung in Befragungen von Schülerinnen und Schülern. Unterscheidung zwischen dem Potential zur kognitiven Aktivierung und der individuellen kognitiven Aktivierung. Zeitschrift für pädagogische Psychologie, (0), 1–15.
Warmdt, J. & Frisch, H. (2023). Digital Storytelling mit Hund Milo. Eine Geschichte im inklusiven Anfangsunterricht am iPad lesen und weitererzählen. Opus.
Warmdt, J., Frisch, H., Ratz, C. & Pohlmann-Rother, S. (2023). Digital lesen und erzählen. Eine Projektwoche für den inklusiven Anfangsunterricht. Fördermagazin Grundschule, (3), 19–23.
Zengilowski, A., Maqbool, I., Deka, S., Niebaum, J., Placido, Diego et al. (2023). Overemphasizing individual differences and overlooking systemic factors reinforces educational inequality. Science of learning, 8(13), 1–13.
04. Inclusive Education
Paper
Using Video Observation to Investigate the Opportunities offered by Dance for Personal Development and Inclusion of Children Experiencing Complex Needs.
Maitreyee Buragohain
University of Northampton, United Kingdom
Presenting Author: Buragohain, Maitreyee
This PhD study explores how dance provides opportunities for personal development of Children Experiencing Complex Needs (CECN), leveraging video observation to delve into the challenges and opportunities for inclusion. Video observation is integral to the methodology of this study involving pupils, parents and teachers associated with different special educational needs schools in England. Complex needs encompass a spectrum of conditions, including physical and sensory disabilities, intellectual and developmental delays, and other medical challenges that may impede societal participation. The premise of the study is that dance supports inclusion, empowering CECN to develop crucial personal skills essential for effective social interaction. By enhancing social inclusion, these personal skills enable CECN to build relationships, engage in activities, and access support systems, leading to significant improvements in overall well-being, sense of belonging, and personal growth.
Participant observation originated in anthropology as a way for researchers to study the customs and practices of remote communities by immersing themselves and observing while participating in the community (Iacono, Brown and Holtham, 2011). Observation as a research method is particularly suitable for studying dance, a multisensory activity that needs to be experienced by the senses and observed as it happens, allowing direct insight into various interactions in different settings (Fox, 1998). It enables a natural way of recording data to study dance and how it affects the behaviour of the participants thus aiding in understanding interactions between people in various situations (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007).
Challenges of participant observation
In this study, the researcher became a participant observer by teaching dance to students who were participants of the study. This helps to gather data about the behaviour of the participants and provides an in-depth understanding of the behaviour of the participants that would otherwise be inaccessible (DeWalt and DeWalt, 2011). However, involvement in the process can also be a distraction to the participants, affecting the quality of the data collected (Johnson, Douglas, Bigby, and Iacono, 2011). To address this challenge, the researcher used videos to collect data which involves recording the activity or behaviour being studied using a video camera, thus providing a less intrusive way of gathering data. The process of selecting a group of participating students was time-consuming and required continuous negotiation and coordination with school staff. One of the students expressed concerns and reservations about the use of a video camera. To address this, the researcher made a conscious effort to build trust gradually and ensure that the presence of the video camera became a natural aspect of the session over time.
Video recording can be a distraction and may prove challenging to maintain focus on the specific subject being studied, particularly in a fluid activity such as dance (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007) which was the case in certain phases of this study. The process of setting up the camera equipment, making sure it is running properly, and adjusting settings took away from the focus on the dance lesson on a few occasions. Additionally, the presence of a teaching assistant was not sufficient to alleviate the distractions caused by the video camera as well as the music system. This was particularly true during the beginning of lessons, as the researcher had to spend time getting the equipment set up and functioning. The teaching assistant’s role was mainly to monitor the participating pupils rather than assist with video recording.
Non-availability of a space for lessons on occasions, continuous negotiations with gatekeepers, lack of response from parents, and delays in receiving signed consent forms from parents were some of the other issues faced which is not uncommon in school-based research (Alibali and Nathan, 2010).
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThis study adopts an interpretivist perspective, drawing on constructivism as theorised by Gray (2009). Interpretivism provides the overarching perspective, and constructivism informs the analysis of the data collected through observations and interviews. Interpretivism seeks to understand the world through subjective experiences (Aikenhead, 1997), while constructivism asserts that knowledge is socially constructed through interaction. Combining these perspectives enriches the researcher's understanding of the social phenomenon studied (Gray, 2009). The analysis, based on video observations and interviews, applies constructivist principles to interpret the data.
Thematic analysis can be used in different types of research to fit the needs of the research (Braun and Clarke, 2006; Kiger and Varpio, 2020). Joffe (2011) believed it works well in constructivist research, as it helps understand how social constructions are formed and looks for deeper themes in the data to understand the multiple perspectives that make up a social construction. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the dance videos as advised by Laurier (2010) who suggested that providing an attentive description of what was happening in the video without drawing premature conclusions is the first stage of video analysis. The goal was to understand what was happening in the dance sessions by closely examining a limited set of instances. The footage was coded to uncover meaningful insights and observations were noted in an observation sheet. A thematic analysis of observation sheet data, video recording data, and observation notes was conducted. The process involved organising and categorising the data by watching each video multiple times, and coding sections of the data into codes. This was done iteratively until all the data was coded. The codes were then reviewed and reorganised into larger categories. Themes were identified based on the activities observed in the recordings and related to the research questions. Finally, a report was written that summarises the findings by describing the themes that emerged from the videos.
Thematic data analysis found five key themes relevant to the underlying principle: ‘making friends’, ‘encouraging inclusion’, ‘developing social skills’, ‘providing enjoyment’, and ‘providing opportunity’. Findings support the use of dance for CECN to enhance social inclusion and personal development skills, emphasising the need for further research and integration into education programs. The findings signify the ability of dance to create change in the lives of CECN through action or activity within a specific context, which can be observed at both the local community and individual level.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe utilisation of video observation as a data collection method in school settings posed numerous challenges throughout the research process. Ensuring ethical considerations and respecting participants' autonomy were crucial aspects of informing the study participants. Establishing a rapport and fostering trust with participants, particularly those with disabilities, was imperative for their active engagement in the research process (Johnson et al., 2011). However, obtaining consent from both students and parents proved to be a time and energy-consuming task. A notable challenge emerged from a student expressing concerns about the presence of a video camera, frequently questioning its purpose at the beginning of lessons. While this curiosity gradually waned over a six-month period, the researcher acknowledged the student's right to inquire about the camera's use in the school environment, respecting their autonomy.
Similar challenges were encountered when working with another group of students in a different school. Time constraints were a significant hurdle demanding careful coordination of observation schedules, suitable locations, and identification of key individuals to work with. Another complication surfaced as only a few students demonstrated an understanding of the ongoing research process, as evidenced by conversations during dance sessions.
This research acknowledges the intricacies of employing video observation in school settings and emphasises the importance of ethical considerations, participant engagement, and establishing trust. Despite the challenges encountered, the study underscores the benefits of participant observation in generating nuanced data which provide opportunities for comparison and interpretation.
In conclusion, this research aims to resonate with both international and European audiences, offering insights that go beyond national boundaries and contribute to broader conversations on inclusive education and the transformative power of dance. Regardless of cultural differences, the commonality of issues faced by children worldwide emphasises the need for research to prove effective interventions, bridging cultural differences and addressing their collective needs.
ReferencesAlibali, M., & Nathan, M. (2010) Conducting research in schools: a practical guide. Journal of Cognition and Development, 11(4), 397-407.
Basil, M. (2011) Use of photography and video in observational research. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal 14(3): 246–257.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2013). Research methods in education. Routledge.
Creswell, J. W. (2011) Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th edition). 4th ed. Boston, MA: Addison Wesley
DeWalt, K.M. and DeWalt, B. R. (2010) Participant Observation: A Guide for Fieldworkers, 2nd ed., no. Book, Whole. AltaMira Press.
Fox, N. (1998) Trent Focus for Research and Development in Primary Health Care: How to Use Observations in a Research Project. Trent Focus.
Guest, G., Namey, E. E., & Mitchell, M. L. (2013). Participant observation. Collecting qualitative data: A field manual for applied research, 75-112.
Iacono, J., Brown, A., & Holtham, C. (2009). Research methods—A case example of participant observation. Electronic journal of business research methods, 7(1), pp 39-46.
Johnson, H., Douglas, J., Bigby, C., & Iacono, T. (2011). The challenges and benefits of using participant observation to understand the social interaction of adults with intellectual disabilities. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 27(4), 267-278.
Joffe H. 2011. Thematic analysis. In: Harper D, Thompson AR, editors. Qualitative methods in mental health and psychotherapy: a guide for students and practitioners. Chichester (UK): John Wiley & Sons; p. 209–224.
Kawulich, B.B. (2005), Participant observation as data collection method, Qualitative social research, 6, 2, pp 43.
Kiger, M. E., & Varpio, L. (2020). Thematic analysis of qualitative data: AMEE Guide No. 131. Medical teacher, 42(8), 846-854.
Overby, L. Y., & Bradley, K. (2007). Better practice in dance education. Building effective teaching through educational research. Maryland State Department of Education.
Petty, N. J., Thomson, O. P. & Stew, G. (2012) Ready for a paradigm shift? Part 1: Introducing the philosophy of qualitative research. Manual Therapy, 17(4), 267-274.
Rankin, J., & Regan, S. (2004) Meeting complex needs: The future of social care. London: Institute for Public Policy Research.
Sharman, C., Cross, W., and Vennis, D. (2007). Observing children and young people. Continuum.
Uldam, J., & McCurdy, P. (2013). Studying social movements: Challenges and opportunities for participant observation. Sociology Compass, 7(11), 941-951.
04. Inclusive Education
Paper
Comparison - Analysis and Reflection Through the 'Productivity of Difference' (Parreira do Amaral, 2015) in Postcolonial, Ethnographic Inclusion Research
Felicitas Kruschick
Leibniz Universität Hanno, Germany
Presenting Author: Kruschick, Felicitas
As part of my dissertation project 'Inclusive Education in Rural Ghana - an ethnographic study in postcolonial relations', I seek to pursue a theoretical and methodological interest, using comparison as a methodology to address the complex problem of doing ethnographic research on inclusive education in postcolonial relations.
Disability and inclusive education are being constructed as an unequal international phenomenon by both academic research (Singal, 2013) and major organizations such as the World Health Organization (World Healt Organization, n.d. 10 facts on disability) or UNESCO (n.d. Global education monitoring report 2020). This leads to developments that describe inclusive education as an 'international movement' (Artiles & Dyson, 2005) and a 'development issue' (Chataika, 2019), highlighting the impact of disability and inclusive education solutions as important for human rights and sustainable development. This constructive basis is highly problematic when contextualized in postcolonial relations, as these tend to reproduce colonial patterns in terms of 'stereotypical dualism' (Andrien & Hulme, 1993). Singal and Muthukrishna (2014) refer to persons with disabilities and note that the discourse describes them as "backward, victims of society, neglected or hidden" (p. 294) with the aim of liberation and emancipation through the "'enlightened', 'civilising' work of Northern scholars and agencies." (ibid.) This is even more problematic as the concept of inclusive education needs to be contextualized due to different understandings of inclusion (Dyson, 1999), disability (Singal, 2013) and education (Singal, 2013) from context to context. The lack of universality thus opens up a space to connect with colonial continuities. It is therefore of theoretical interest to gain insights into the understanding of these phenomena in postcolonial relations, and thus to be able to describe understandings of inclusive education. I have chosen Ghana as my research site for practical research reasons.
In addition to the theoretical research interest, which again focuses on inclusive educational practice in rural Ghana, the methodological research interest asks how the perspective on this is constructed, as this is of high interest due to the critique of inclusive education "from the West to the rest" (Grech, 2011). Thus, the relationship between the object of research (what?) and construction of positionality or perspectivity (how do I look and how is the perspective constructed?) is central.
The research design, which tends to follow orientations, narratives and discourses that can be located in the Global North (Werning et al., 2016) or the West (Grech, 2011), thus becomes itself the object of critical inquiry. The research design itself is thus understood as fragile and fluid, in order to rethink questions of postcolonial relations, understood as powerful, exclusive and hierarchical, towards an inclusive and open scientific negotiation.
The methodology of comparison offers orientation to this theoretical-methodological problem. The ‘productivity of difference’ (2015, p. 108), according to Parreira do Amaral, not only enables the perception of what is one's own or what is different by distancing oneself from the familiar. This productivity also opens up spaces for reflection in which the relational construction of self and other (Othering: Said, 1978) can be critically examined and discussed. (ibid.)
The presentation aims first to outline the research design and the inherent problems, and then to take a closer look at the methodological possibilities of the ‘productivity of difference’ (Parreira do Amaral 2015, 108) by asking the following questions:
- What possibilities does the method(ology) of comparison offer? How can comparison be used profitably?
- How can the construction of difference, which tends to be problematic, be made productive and used profitably for the research object?
- How does the specificity of postcolonial relations construct the practice of comparison, and what are its orientations?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedSituating myself within the ethnographic paradigm, I conducted ethnographic fieldwork in rural Ghana twice, each lasting approximately two months, in 2017 and 2019. After establishing access through continuous presence, I encountered Paul (pseudonymized), introduced by villagers as a mentally and physically disabled boy. Subsequently, I accompanied Paul to school, attended lessons, engaged with teachers, and explored various forms of schooling and activities. Insights were gained through participant observation, observational participation, and ethnographic interviews. (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2019)
The ethnographic paradigm, inherently constructive, involves observations based on the researcher's perceptions and the translation of observed phenomena into field notes. Considering inclusive education as relational, I grappled with the theoretical and methodological challenges of ethnographic research in this context. The postcolonial setting, my positionality as a white researcher from the global North, and the non-transferable nature of inclusive education theory led me to question how ethnographic knowledge production can be conducted. I therefore decided to view subjectivity necessarily as an epistemic value as ethnography itself has been described as “hauntingly personal” (Van Maanen, 2011, p. xiii). While ethnographic discourse emphasizes participant observation as a method for knowledge production, it lacks methodological guidance or description on how this process constructs and produces knowledge. This gap presents an opportunity to introduce comparison as a methodological frame in comparative international educational research, a tool for analysis and reflection through the ‘productivity of difference’ (Parreira do Amaral, 2015).
The personal style in writing ethnographic field notes, expressing subjectivity (Emerson et al., 2011), is analyzed by detaching from normal and familiar circumstances to question them (Parreira do Amaral, 2015). This involves examining irritations, questions, or strong emotions in the data to understand their sources. By employing this analysis, I situate myself and my perspective in the analysis process, using it as a point of comparison.
In summary, empirical material is analyzed using Grounded Theory Methodology (Charmaz, 2006) at two levels: the practice of inclusive education and how observations and experiences affect me as a researcher and person. This analysis aims to challenge the exclusive "from West to the rest" (Grech, 2011) inclusion discourse.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsI. Comparison offers a starting point for reflecting and analyzing one's own and the other's as well as the common third party, the so-called tertium comparisonis. (Adick, 2008) Reflecting and analyzing the constructed domination of difference is particularly important in postcolonial relations. The tertium comparisonis also opens up different possibilities of comparison that are detached from so-called methodological nationalism and thus aim at objects of comparison (comparata) other than those of the nation-state. (Chernilo, 2011) Comparison is used as a (complex) method of systematization with the aim of gaining knowledge (Hofstadter & Sander, 2013).
II. The focus on the idiographic (the particular) (Noah et al., 1998) draws attention to inclusive educational practice, which runs counter to the “from the West to the rest” (Grech 2011) understanding of ethnographic researchers and theory. Against the background of the 'productivity of difference' (Parreira do Amaral 2015), the focus on irritations in the data material is used as a door opener for reflection and analysis that address questions of positionality, representation and the construction and interpretation of difference. The approach aims at a postcolonial informed description of inclusive education, with its constitutive feature - participation - serving as the tertium comparationis (Adick, 2008).
III. The comparative foils are based on the object theory of inclusive education as a "from the West to the rest" (Grech 2011) dynamic, as well as the ethnographic researcher's inherent assumptions associated with it. These are fundamentally oriented towards an understanding of inclusive education gained from reforms and developments in the Global North (Werning et al. 2016.) or, as described by Muthukrishna and Engelbrecht (2018), in " resource-rich model[s; editor's note] of support provision in high income countries for learners" (p. 1). Without a critical-reflective analysis of the knowledge-generating comparative practice, a self-legitimizing knowledge cycle is (re)produced.
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