04. Inclusive Education
Paper
Do Willingness to Communicate and Motivation Have An Impact on Students' Reading Performance? A Comparative Study of Four Economies
Mingcan Wu1, Wangqiong Ye2
1University of Melbourne, China, People's Republic of; 2University of Oslo
Presenting Author: Ye, Wangqiong
The concept of Willingness to Communicate (WTC) refers to the intention to speak or to remain silent given free choice (MacIntyre, 2007) . Originally, it was associated with speaking in one’s first language, but in the 1990s, it was applied to second language communication. And the concept was refined to denote a language learner’s willingness to use the target language to communicate with a certain person at a certain time (MacIntyre, Clément, Dörnyei, & Noels, 1998)
WTC in second language (L2) is conceptualized as a dynamic state of communicative readiness (Zarrinabadi & Tanbakooei, 2016). For example, MacIntyre et al., (1998) developed a pyramid WTC model that integrates various layers of variables, including communication behavior, behavioral intention, situated antecedents, motivational propensities, affective-cognitive context, and social and individual context.
The complex interrelationship of variables affecting WTC construction in L2 can be categorized into six different levels. The variables from the upper three layers, communication behavior, behavioral intention, and situated antecedents, have a temporary and changeable influence on students' willingness to communicate.
Motivation can be categorized into intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Intrinsic motivation is characterized by a sense of enjoyment and satisfaction associated with an activity, for example, students enjoy the process of language learning and feel a sense of satisfaction in acquiring new skills. It is based on the belief that interpersonal interactions and social environments can fulfill fundamental psychological needs, allowing individuals to develop growth-oriented tendencies such as internalization and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2012; Noels, 2009).
Conversely, extrinsic motivation pertains to behaviors that are performed for reasons other than the inherent satisfaction they provide (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Within Self-Determination Theory, four primary subtypes of extrinsic motivation have been identified: external regulation, involving behaviors motivated by external rewards or punishments; introjected regulation, where behavior is governed by internal rewards like self-esteem for success; identified regulation, characterized by a person’s endorsement of an activity’s value, leading to a higher willingness to act; and integrated regulation, where an individual not only sees the value in the activity but also aligns it with their other values.
While willingness to communicate (WTC) is widely acknowledged as a significant contributor to language achievement, its potential in the context of reading performance among immigrant students remains underexplored. However, it is less explored in scenarios such as learning the language through immersion in a country where the language is spoken. Besides, research has traditionally focused on WTC’s impact in oral communication scenarios, leaving a gap in our understanding of how it influences reading achievement.
Motivation (MOT) is a well-established driver of academic success, acting as the fuel that powers students’ efforts to overcome challenges and achieve their educational goals. In the study of language learning, MOT’s role is particularly pronounced, influencing not only the desire to learn but also the persistence in overcoming barriers. The inclusion of MOT alongside WTC in this research acknowledges the complex interplay between a student’s desire to communicate and their underlying motivational drives. Understanding how WTC mediates the relationship between MOT and reading performance could unveil new pathways to enhancing immigrant students’ academic outcomes, spotlighting the need for educational strategies that nurture both motivation and communication willingness.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe data I used is from the 2018 administration of PISA. The OECD conducted PISA every three years, which is a global assessment of 15-year-olds’ educational performance. In the PISA, participants needs to take tests including reading, science, and mathematics, and a half-hour background questionnaire. I used data from 2018, as it is the most recent cyclefocusing on the subject of reading and the background questionnaire includes accurate interest in my research questions.The main focus of the key outcome in this research is student’s PISA reading scores. During the PISA test, students receive a booklet containing a selected subset of the total exam materials. By analysing student’s answer to the background questionnaires and PISA test results, student’s existing abilities shown in reading would be estimated by one-parameter item response model used by the survey organisers. Aiming at reflecting researchers’ uncertainty in students’ original proficiencies in each subject, 10 ‘plausible values’ are selected from every student. So, in this article, 10 plausible values are employed consistently as recommended practice. Each model is calculated 10 times, during which each credible value is used for once. Then, the parameter estimates and standard errors are combined and pooled according to ‘Rubin’s rules’ (Rubin, 1987).
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsAs part of a broader project dedicated to examining long-term trends, the current investigation utilizes data collected from Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, and Singapore. These countries participated in the reading tests administered as part of the PISA 2018 assessment. The findings of the analysis reveal that the reading proficiency of immigrant students is influenced by both their willingness to communicate and motivation. Notably, New Zealand demonstrates the strongest correlation with willingness to communicate, while Singapore exhibits the strongest association with motivation. Furthermore, willingness to communicate is identified as mediating the relationship between motivation and reading proficiency across all economies. Despite variations in motivation and family socio-economic status, no distinct cultural trend is evident across these economies. This research can provide insights into how fostering immigrant student’s Willingness to Communicate support student’s reading proficiency and reading performance, thus helping them to better integrate into the society with different culture and linguistic background.
ReferencesDeci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Motivation, personality, and development within embedded social contexts: An overview of self-determination theory. The Oxford handbook of human motivation, 18(6), 85-107.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary educational psychology, 61, 101860.MacIntyre, P. D. (2007). Willingness to communicate in the second language: Understanding the decision to speak as a volitional process. The modern language journal, 91(4), 564-576.
MacIntyre, P. D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The modern language journal, 82(4), 545-562.
Rubin, D.B. (1987) Multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470316696
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 54-67.
Zarrinabadi, N., & Tanbakooei, N. (2016). Willingness to communicate: Rise, development, and some future directions. Language and Linguistics Compass, 10(1), 30-45.
04. Inclusive Education
Paper
Beyond Borders: Comparative Perspectives on Inclusion and Adapted Education for Gifted Children within Norway and Denmark's Early Childhood Care
Kari Kvandal, Gila Hammer Furnes
NLA University College, Norway
Presenting Author: Kvandal, Kari
The Early Childhood Education Act (Barnehageloven, 2005) in Norway upholds the principle of inclusivity, emphasizing the provision of a high-quality educational experience tailored to every child's individual needs. The aim is to nurture the development of each child’s abilities and talents. However, when it comes to the education of gifted children, the responsibility seems to lie with individual early childhood care institutions and municipalities. This decentralized approach has led to notable variations in practices and methodologies among different institutions. Perceptions of giftedness, however, vary, and researchers across countries and cultures face challenges in defining and theorizing giftedness in children (Furnes & Jokstad, 2023; Idsøe, 2021; Sternberg, 2019). The Norwegian education system and early childhood care also have diverse opinions on children, shaping attitudes and pedagogical practices (Furnes & Jokstad, 2023). Early childhood care teachers play a pivotal role in identifying and addressing the needs of every child, as outlined in Norwegian regulations (Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2017; Barnehageloven, 2005). Inclusion is a key aspect of Norwegian education and laws (Barnehageloven, 2005).
In our comparative study, we aim to investigate the national policies and attitudes regarding gifted children within the context of early childhood care. Our focus extends to comparing the approaches taken in Norway and Denmark. In its early stages, the research adopts a documentary empiric approach, examining policy documents from both nations. The intersection between pedagogic and special pedagogic considerations in Norway is a significant aspect, with Befring and Næss (2019) emphasizing gifted children as a goal for special education. Our analysis delves into how policy documents utilize the term "gifted children" and its connection with inclusion and the rights of children with special needs, as outlined by UNESCO (1994).
Questions in the study arise about the alignment of these attitudes with Amartya Sen's research on capabilities (1993, 1999), The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Actions on Special Needs Education (UNESCO, 1994), and Norwegian laws (NOU 2009:18). Our research aims to reflect on these questions. This study is part of a larger research project that aims to contribute to the conversation concerning the education and treatment of gifted children in the future.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used In the initial stages of our research, we primarily rely on a literature review (Creswell, 2014) and documentary analysis (Asdal & Reinertsen, 2021, Bowen, 2009), which will form the basis of this article. Our focus is on understanding how policy documents describe the rights of gifted children for inclusion and facilitation in early childhood care education. This study is part of a broader research project incorporating "mixed methods" (Creswell, 2014), where the importance of gifted children's rights is highlighted. The subsequent phases may involve a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods, including interviews (Kvale & Brinkman, 2015) with early childhood teachers, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the subject.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsPreliminary findings indicate that the term "gifted children" is gaining recognition in educational discourse, and our research seeks to provide reflections on its alignment with broader educational principles. As we embark on this new empirical journey, we emphasize the importance of contributing to ongoing discussions on the education and treatment of gifted children for the future.
ReferencesAsdal, K. & Reinertsen, H. (2021): Hvordan gjøre dokumentanalyse. En praksisorientert metode. Cappelen Damm Akademisk.
Barnehageloven. (2005). Lov om barnehager (LOV-2005-06-17-64). From :Lov om barnehager (barnehageloven) - Kapittel I. Barnehagens formål og innhold - Lovdata
Befring, E. & Næss, K-A. B. (2019). Innledning og sammenfatning. In: E. Befring, K-A. B. Næss & R.Tangen (red.) Spesialpedagogikk. Cappelen Damm Akademisk.
Bowen,G.A.(2009). Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method. From: Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method | Emerald Insight
Creswell,J.W. (2014). Education research: Planning, Conducting and Evaluating Qunatitative and Qualitative Research. Fourth Edition. Mass.: Pearson
Idsøe, E.C., Campbell, J., Idsøe, T. & Størksen, I. (2021). Development and psychometric properties of nomination scales for high academic potential in early childhood education and care. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 30(4), 624–637.
Furnes, G & Jokstad, G. (2023). “It May Be a Luxury, but Not a Problem”: A Mixed Methods Study of Teachers’ Attitudes towards the Educational Needs of Gifted Students in Norway. From : [PDF] “It May Be a Luxury, but Not a Problem”: A Mixed Methods Study of Teachers’ Attitudes towards the Educational Needs of Gifted Students in Norway | CiteDrive
Kunnskapsdepartementet (2017). Rammeplanen for barnehagens innhold og oppgaver. From: Forskrift om rammeplan for barnehagens innhold og oppgaver - 1 Barnehagens verdigrunnlag - Lovdata
NOU 2016:14. Official Norwegian Report “More to Gain: Better Learning for Students with Higher Learning Potential”; Kunnskapsdepartementet: Oslo, Norway, 2016; Available online: https://www.regjeringen.no/en/dokumenter/nou-2016-14/id2511246/?ch=1 (accessed on 1 June 2023).
Sen, A. (1993) Capabilities and well-being. In M. C. Nussbaum & A. Sen (red.), The quality of life (s.30-53) University of Utha Press.
Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. Oxford University Press.
Sternberg, R.J. (2019). Is Gifted Education on the Right Path? In: B. Wallance, D.A. Sisk & J. Senior. The SAGE Handbook of Gifted and Talented Education. British Library.
UNESCO (1994). The Salamanca statement and framework for action on special needs education. UNESCO.
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