31. LEd – Network on Language and Education
Paper
Sweden Finnish Family Language Policies and Practices in Cases of Successful Language Maintenance
Jaana Kolu1, Jenni Alisaari2, Lasse Vuorsola2
1University of Eastern Finland; 2Stockholm University, Sweden
Presenting Author: Kolu, Jaana;
Vuorsola, Lasse
Minority language maintenance or shift occurs at the individual, family, and societal levels through the interplay of psychological and social factors in the community in which the language minority members are situated (Spolsky 2004; Curdt-Christiansen & Huang 2020; Vuorsola 2022a). A range of factors influence language maintenance in diverse ways in different contexts; thus, it is impossible to formulate a single universally accepted theory that predicts whether language transmission will occur in any bilingual environment (Aalberse, et al., 2019). In recent years, the family has become the focus of attention in sociolinguistic studies on minority languages in the field of Language Policy (Curdt-Cristiansen & Huang 2020; Schwartz 2020).
In this study, we use Curdt-Christiansen’s and Huang’s (2020) Family Language Policy Model as our theoretical background. In this model, family language policies are influenced by external and internal factors: External factors are 1) socio-economic, 2) socio-political, 3) socio-cultural, and 4) socio-linguistic factors, and the internal factors are 1) emotional, 2) identity and 3) cultural factors, 4) parental impact beliefs and 5) child agency (Curdt-Cristiansen & Huang, 2020). However, the scope the current study does not allow for implementation of the entire FLP model and thus, we focus on the internal factors.
Although the sociolinguistic situation of Sweden’s national minority languages, Finnish, Meänkieli, Sami, Yiddish and Romany Chib, has improved slightly since Sweden ratified the Council of Europe’s European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in 2000 (SOU 2017:91), they are still under serious threat, partly due to the fact that teaching in these languages has not been organized sufficiently. Moreover, there has been a long-standing process of forced language shift and Swedishisation, which has led to a steady decline in the number of speakers of these languages (SOU 2017:91). Thus, in their daily lives, minority language families in Sweden often face the consequences of lack of adequate language policies in schools (SOU 2017:91) and negative attitudes towards minority languages in society in general (Vuorsola 2022b). Consequently, family language policy, family’s ability to resist external pressures to speak majority language with their children, and language practices and attitudes of family members are crucial factors in maintenance of heritage language. Although Sweden is committed to the preservation and revitalisation of minority languages in its minority policy and legislation, there are major shortcomings, particularly in the field of education, which has drawn criticism by the supervisory authorities of the Council of Europe (SOU 2017:91). Therefore, the families’ language policies still seem to determine the maintenance of minority languages in Sweden (King et al., 2008).
Sweden Finns are the largest national minority group in Sweden, and the number of those with a Finnish background is estimated to be around 800 000 (Salö & Milani 2023: 30). Although family language policies in different minority language groups and contexts have been studied in recent decades, there are only a few studies on the factors influencing the language policies of Sweden Finnish families over the past decade (see Lainio & Pesonen 2021). In this study, we examine Sweden Finnish heritage language policies and language practices through semi-structured interviews in 10 Sweden Finnish families where the Finnish language has been successfully passed on to the subsequent generation(s). The research question is:
How do the parents describe their language policies and how emotional, identity and cultural factors, as well as parental impact beliefs and child agency have influenced language practices in the Sweden Finnish families where the Finnish language has transmitted to the next generation(s)?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe data have been collected through individual semi-structured interviews in 2022–2024 in different parts of Sweden. The entire data set includes interviews with hundred Sweden Finns and Tornedalians as part of the project One hundred Swedish Finns and Tornedalian linguistic biographies, but this presentation only reports on interviews with family members of 10 families which were selected for this study on the basis that the Finnish language has been passed from parents to children (and in few cases also to grandchildren). The interview questions included questions about the family's language use and factors that they considered have influenced the language choices of the family and individual family members.
The data collection, storing and processing follows the ethical principles outlined in the Ethical review in human sciences for research involving human participants drawn up by The Finnish National Board on Research Integrity (TENK, 2023) and by the Swedish Research Council (2017), as well as those of the participating universities. In addition, the processing of personal data in the research complies with the EU General Data Protection Regulation (EU 2016/679) as well as the Finnish Data Protection Act (1050/2018). The participants, for example, gave their consent both orally and in writing to be part of the study.
The data were analysed with the theory-driven content analysis (Krippendorff, 1980). To begin the qualitative content analysis the first author read the transcriptions of the interviews to gain an initial understanding of the data and to start to code the data based on Curdt-Christiansen’s and Huang’s (2020) Family Language Policy Model’s internal factors: 1) emotional, 2) identity and 3) cultural factors, 4) parental impact beliefs and 5) child agency. The suggested coding was then discussed among the three authors. If coded cases were unclear, the coding was negotiated and revised.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe preliminary results show that Finnish has been transmitted to the second and third generation through parents’ heritage language use and investment in the child's language learning, but also through child’s own agency. However, there can be remarkable differences between siblings in a family. Emotional aspect for maintaining Finnish language was strong in the narratives of the families, and they used strong descriptive language when describing decisions behind their language practices. Identity was also strongly included in the decisions concerning language maintenance, as families strongly identified themselves as Finnish speakers. Cultural factors were reflected e.g. in dedication to read Finnish literature.
Parental impact beliefs were strongly present in the narratives: Parents had made a conscious and firm decision to systematically use only Finnish with their children, and they believed that the children would learn Swedish later at school, and that mixing languages at home would not be beneficial for their children’s language learning. Furthermore, the parents reported various ways of investing in their children’s Finnish language learning. Concerning child agency, children often shared their parents' desire to keep Finnish and Swedish separate from each other, but noted that siblings, friends and changing life situations remarkably affected their language practices.
The results indicate that Finnish language had maintained its status as the home language due to more or less conscious family language policy planning. Moreover, the family language policies seemed to depend on the parents’ linguistic backgrounds and their beliefs and attitudes, but also on children’s own agency. The findings of this study are relevant in the European context since many heritage languages struggle in staying alive, and revitalisation of minority languages is needed in many countries (SOU 2017:91). Thus, awareness of aspects affecting maintaining heritage languages is essential.
ReferencesAalberse, S., Backus, A. & Muysken, P. (2019). Heritage Languages. A Language Contact Approach. John Benjamins.
Curdt-Cristiansen, X. L. & Huang, J. (2020). Factors influencing family language policy. In Andrea C. Shalley & Susana A. Eisenchlas (eds.), Handbook of social and affective factors in home language maintenance and development (pp. 174–193). Mouton de Gruyter.
King, K. A. & Fogle, L. W. (2017). Family Language Policy. In: McCarty, T., May, S. (eds.). Language Policy and Political Issues in Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education. (pp 315–327). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02344-1_25
Krippendorff, K. (1980). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Sage.
Lainio, J. & Pesonen S. (2021). »Önskar att jag hade fått hjälp att lära min son finska.»: Finskans öden i skenet av 2000-talets utbildnings- och minoritetspolitiska utveckling i Sverige. (’Wish I had got some help to teach my son Finnish”: the fate of Finnish in the shadow of minority language and education policies in Sweden during the 2000s’). Språk och stil 31 (1), pp. 44–74.
Salö, L. & Tommaso M. (2023). Minoritetsspråkspolitik och sociolingvistiska verkligheter. In: M. Tommaso & L. Salö. Sveriges Nationella minoritetsspråk. Nya språkpolitiska perspektiv. Studentlitteratur.
Schwartz, M. (2020). Strategies and practices of home language maintenance. In A. C. Shalley & S. A. Eisenchlas (eds.), Handbook of social and affective factors in home language maintenance and development (pp. 194–217). Mouton de Gruyter.
SOU (2017:91). Statens offentliga utredningar. Betänkande av Utredningen förbättrade möjligheter för elever att utveckla sitt nationella minoritetsspråk. (’State public inquiries. Report of the inquiry into improved opportunities for pupils to develop their national minority language’).
Spolsky, B. (2004). Language Policy. Cambridge University Press.
Vuorsola, L. (2022a). Peer interaction practices as part of a Sweden Finnish spatial repertoire. Linguistics and Education, 67, p.101014.
Vuorsola, L. (2022b). “Speak your own language”. On tensions regarding Finnish in Sweden. Doctoral thesis in Finnish at Stockholm University.
31. LEd – Network on Language and Education
Paper
Gender-Based Inequalities in Linguistic Communicative Competence in Basque Bilingual Elementary Schools
Veronica Azpillaga, Nahia Intxausti Intxausti, Amaia Lojo-Novo, Sandra Rodriguez-Miguel, Izaskun Lopetegi-Mendizabal
Univ. of the Basque Count, Spain
Presenting Author: Lojo-Novo, Amaia
The aim of the research is to determine to what extent elementary schools in the Basque Autonomous Community can reduce gender differences in learning the Basque and Spanish language. This study seeks to characterize the most equitable Elementary schools in terms of performance in the Basque and Spanish language obtained by the students. The discourse of the professionals working in these schools are studied.
Even though one of the important purposes of the European Union is to promote gender equity in educational institutions (European Institute for gender equality. EIGE, 2023), there are still gender differences in performance, individual motivations, or professional aspirations (Kollmayer et al., 2018). Likewise, the existing research on the study of gender differences within the educational context is increasing, intending to respond to the need to create educational responses to narrow such differences (Quenzel & Hurrelmannb, 2013; Cervini et al., 2015; Van Hek et al., 2016). Horizontal segregation theory explains the differences that still exist in vocational options and choice of specialist subjects, with girls continuing to opt more for qualifications linked to caring for others, which enjoy a lower level of professional prestige (EIGE, 2019).
The factors that promote gender inequity in the education system are multifaceted. These factors involve the interaction of institutional environments, the social climate, motivation patterns, orientations regarding gender roles, family resources, parental decisions, school structure, and teacher evaluations and decisions (Hadjar et al. 2014). This indicates that, in addition to individual factors or contextual circumstances in education, these factors may be relevant to a person's educational achievement (Van Hek et al., 2016). School culture, teaching practices, and home and social environment can promote differences in students regarding educational achievement (Mensah & Kiernan, 2010).
Research seems to agree that one of the most prominent gender gaps is found in literacy and language, favoring girls over boys (Gustavsen, 2017; Quinn, 2018; Soto et al., 2019) also in PISA (Quenzel and Hurrelmannb, 2013; Manu et al. 2021) and in terms of attitude and motivation to reading (Artola et al., 2017). But it is necessary to identify if this trend also takes place in bilingual contexts such as BAC, , in a diglossia situation; 14.13% of the population speak Basque at home (Eustat, 2016). Other studies found that girls have a higher level of Linguistic Communicative Competence (LCC) in Basque than boys (Basque Government, ISEI-IVEI, & Soziolinguistika Klusterra, 2019), whereas boys have a marginally higher level of LCC in Spanish (Intxausti et al., 2023). That might indicate a feminization of the Basque language or the construction of masculinity through Spanish language (Altuna, 2023). Altuna (2017) argues that boys associate the minority language with the formal domain, such as the school context, with one way of challenging formal school rules being to speak in Spanish (Altuna & Hernadez, 2018). Other studies on minority language context as Wales have observed a trend among young males to use the more prestigious language (Price & Tamburelli, 2016) in informal social domains. Therefore, a deeper approach to the gender gap in LCC is required, taking the cultural-social and linguistic context into account, since, although studies have generally found that girls score higher in LCC than boys, this finding may not apply to bilingual contexts.
This study covers a research gap on the efficiency of elementary schools in relation to the outcomes in linguistic competence in intersection with gender in specific bilingual scenario. It is important to investigate if schools are successful in achieving fair results in bilingual context regardless of the gender of the students in order to understand better language learning and its intersection with issues of gender disparity.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThis study is exploratory and descriptive with a mixed methodology. For the quantitative study, data was gathered from the census sample, on average, students in the 4th grade of 529 Elementary Schools participated.
The Basque Institute for Educational Evaluation and Research (ISEI-IVEI) carries out Diagnostic Evaluations (D.E.), a standardized test similar to PISA that aims to assess the mathematical and linguistic competence in Spanish and Basque which includes five different dimensions (Basque Government, 2008): oral comprehension, written comprehension, oral expression, written expression and oral interaction. The database used in this study was the D.E. carried out in 2015, 2017, and 2019. Statistical analyses were conducted with the SPSS 26 program.
This study analyzes the concept of school effectiveness in terms of gender equity. Equitable elementary schools were identified using multilevel regression modeling techniques (Lizasoain, 2020). That enables contextual variables to be controlled for families' economic, social and cultural status (ESCS), the family language, and the percentage of immigrant students since it is widely accepted that contextual variables strongly influence the academic results obtained by schools.
These contextual variables were controlled to calculate residual values. Two residual values are considered in this study to identify gender equity index: 1) female student: the difference between the score obtained by the female students of each educational school in the D.E. with respect to the score expected for them considering their context. 2) male student: the difference between the score obtained by male students of each educational school in the D.E. with respect to the score expected for them considering their context. The gender equality index is obtained from the difference between the residual values of girls and boys. The centers that obtain or are close to the value 0 are those identified as equitable centers.
65 elementary schools met the equitable criterion in Basque competence and 89 schools in Spanish competence. Among those equitable centers, 10 schools obtaining equitable results in the Basque language and 9 schools in Spanish gave their consent to continue in the study.
For the qualitative study, interviews were conducted with 22 members of the management and teachers of those equitable schools. In these interviews, students' results about gender equity in the Basque and Spanish language were presented, and their perceptions in this regard were analyzed. A common protocol was established for the interviewers. Instrument was designed about five different areas.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe multilevel regression analysis shows that very few schools in the B.A.C. are gender equitable, that is, a few schools obtain better results than expected for both, girls and boys. 65 out of 529 centers in the entire B.A.C., that is, 12.3%, manage to achieve equitable academic results in Basque competence and 89 schools (16,8%) in Spanish competence. As in other studies students’ performance in Basque differ more between boys and girls than in Spanish (Intxausti et al. 2023), this study confirms that they also continue to do when contextual factors are controlled. That is, the equity index is slightly higher in Spanish than in Basque competence, so that requires more studies on language learning in intersection with gender issues.
The discourses of the schools' professionals identified as equitable vary in some dimensions studied. The results of the interviews show that the schools have not reflected on the importance of educating in equality in the dimension of LCC. Although it has seen that they have implemented coeducational plans (Basque Government, 2019b) and actions to promote gender equity, they have not initiated a reflection on the importance of reducing the gender gap in LCC. That makes it difficult to break with the sexual division in the choices of high school modalities, future university degrees and future jobs (EIGE, 2019; Emakunde, 2017).
However, the equitable results were explained by the methodologies applied specially for learning Basque. These methodologies begin in the infant stage and are carried out with teachers trained for this purpose. Although the methodologies differ (cooperative learning, dialogic learning, phonological awareness), collaborative work among students and the use of heterogeneous groups can be observed. Some schools justify their equitable results with their work in coexistence and individualized tutoring and consider it crucial to address each student's academic and emotional needs.
ReferencesAltuna, J. (2023). Hizkuntzaren funanbulistak. Hizkuntza sozializazioa kirol eremuan adin eta generoak ardaztuta [Tightrope walker of language. Language socialization in sport domain focused on age and gender]. Doctoral Thesis. http://hdl.handle.net/10810/62640
Artola, T., Sastre, S., & Barraca, J. (2017). Diferencias de género en actitudes e intereses lectores. Una investigación con alumnos españoles de Primaria [Gender differences in regards to reading attitudes and interests: a research based on spanish primary school pupils]. Bordon, 69(1), 11–26. https://doi.org/10.13042/Bordon.2016.37925
Basque Government. (2008). La Evaluación Diagnóstica en Euskadi. Propuesta para su desarrollo y aplicación [Diagnostic Evaluation in Euskadi. Proposal for its development and application]. Departamento de Educación, Universidades e Investigación. https://hdl.handle.net/11162/206655
European Institute for gender equality. EIGE (2023). Gender equality index. Publications office of the European Union.
Intxausti, N., Rodriguez, S. Aierbe, A. (2023). Do more effective school succeed in reducing the gender gap in linguistic communicative competence in bilingual context? Culture and education, 35(3), 699-734. https://doi.org/10.1080/11356405.2022.2154560
Kollmayer, M., Schober, B., & Spiel, C. (2018). Gender Stereotypes in Education: Development, Consequences, and Interventions. European Journal of Developmental Psycholy, 15(4), 361–377. http://doi.org/ 10.1080/17405629.2016.1193483
Lizasoain, L. (2020). Criterios y modelos estadísticos de eficacia escolar [Criteria and statistical models of school effectiveness]. Revista de Investigación Educativa, 38(2), 311–327. https://doi.org/10.6018/rie.417881
Manu, M., Torppa, M., Eklund, K., Poikkeus, A., Lerkkanen, M., & Niemi, P. (2021). Kindergarten pre-reading skills predict Grade 9 reading comprehension (PISA Reading) but fail to explain gender difference. Reading and Writing, 34, 753–771. https://doi.org/10.1007/s1114502010090
Mensah, F.K. & Kiernan, K.E. (2010) Gender differences in educational attainment: influences of the family environment. British Educational Research Journal, 36(2), 239-260, DOI: 10.1080/01411920902802198
Price, A. R., & Tamburelli, M. (2016). Minority language abandonment in Welsh-medium educated L2 male adolescents: Classroom, not chatroom. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 29(2), 189–206.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2015.1136323Basque Government, 2008
Quinn, J. M. (2018). Diferential identification of females and males with reading difculties: A metaanalysis. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 31,(5), 1039–1061. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9827-8
Soto, J., Cordero, M. E., & Jaraíz, F. J. (2019). Estudio de casos sobre el hábito de lectura entre los niños de 0 a 12 años en Extremadura. Didáctica, 31, 147–170. https://doi.org/10.5209/dida.65946
Van Hek, M., Kraaykamp, G., & Wolbers, M. H. J. (2016). Comparing the gender gap in educational attainment: The impact of emancipatory contexts in 33 cohorts across 33 countries. Educational Research and Evaluation, 22, 260–282. http://doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2016.1256222
31. LEd – Network on Language and Education
Paper
Syrian and Iraqi Refugee Children‘s Language Learning and Multilingualism at Home and at School
Hanna Ragnarsdóttir, Samúel Lefever, Zulaia Johnston da Cruz, Lara Wilhelmine Hoffmann
University of Iceland, Iceland
Presenting Author: Ragnarsdóttir, Hanna;
Johnston da Cruz, Zulaia
This paper presents preliminary findings from the research project, A Part and Apart? Education and social inclusion of refugee children and youth in Iceland (ESRCI).
The project generally aims to critically explore the education and social inclusion of Syrian and Iraqi refugee children and youth at pre-, compulsory and upper secondary levels and the structures created for their learning and wellbeing in their social and educational settings. Groups of socalled quota refugees from Syria and Iraq arrived in Iceland from 2015 onwards, invited to the country in collaboration with the UNHCR. These refugees settled in eleven different municipalities as part of state agreements with those municipalities.
Findings of previous research in Iceland have revealed multiple challenges that refugee children face in Icelandic schools and society, but also educational and social success (Hama, 2020; Hariri et al., 2020; Ragnarsdóttir &Hama, 2018). While there has been some research with refugee groups in Iceland, ESRCI is the first extensive research with these refugee groups. The project is directed by the overarching research question: How do the education system and socio-cultural environments in Iceland contribute to the education and social inclusion of refugee children and youth?
The project is divided into four pillars, the second of which is Language learning and multilingualism at home and at school. Drawing on data related to the theme in this pillar, the paper aims to explore the refugee children’s and youth’s language use, language learning and multilingualism.
Research questions include:
1: What is the nature of refugee children’s and youth’s language use and language learning (Icelandic and heritage language/s) in school and at home?
2: How does refugee children’s and youth’s language use impact their social and educational development?
3: How do schools build on these children‘s linguistic resources and which linguistically and culturally responsive practices are in place?
This paper draws on theoretical approaches within fields such as second language learning, multilingualism, and heritage languages. Burns (2008) argues that language proficiency may well be regarded as a proxy indicator for inclusion. Schools as sites of language teaching and learning therefore become key facilitators in the inclusion of refugee children. The work of Nusche (2009) provides helpful insights into some of the most important elements required to properly address the language learning needs of migrant and refugee children. Many of these are addressed at the level of school policies and include early language assistance, for example in preschool education and care, individual monitoring of language development and systematic support for language learning throughout school and teachers trained in second language teaching.
In recent years, the benefits of bi- and multilingualism for individuals and societies have been explored and discussed by many scholars (Chumak-Horbatsch, 2012; Cummins, 2004; Ragnarsdóttir & Schmidt, 2014). However, the multiple resources which ethnic minority students, immigrants and refugees bring to schools tend to be overlooked and ignored. Cummins (2004) has addressed the need for investing in practices affecting social justice in a positive way in educational communities and gaining understanding of how school policy and teachers’ attitudes, beliefs and exclude some children while welcoming others. According to Cummins, in order to create learning spaces that respond to the needs of linguistically and culturally diverse groups of children and families, schools need to consider how to implement socially just and inclusive practices that welcome diverse backgrounds and identities. Additionally, to develop inclusive and linguistically appropriate practices (Chumak-Horbatsch, 2012; Cummins, 2004; Gay, 2010) it is important to build on children’s prior experiences and knowledge.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe qualitative ESRCI research project involves Syrian and Iraqi refugee children and youth of different genders and their parents who have diverse educational and socio-economic backgrounds, altogether 40 families with children in schools at one or more levels (pre-, compulsory and upper secondary) in eleven municipalities in Iceland, as well as the children’s teachers, principals and where relevant, school counsellors in the children’s schools, municipality persons, social services and NGOs. The eleven municipalities are located in different parts of Iceland: Southwest (Capital area), Northwest, West Fjords, Northeast, East and South Iceland. Purposive sampling was used to select the families and information on the participants obtained from authorities (Stjórnarráð Íslands, n.d.). Multiple case studies are conducted with quota refugee children and youth in altogether 40 families in eleven municipalities in urban and rural contexts in Iceland. Each of the 40 families is considered to be one case. According to Stake (2005), a case study is frequently chosen as it draws attention to what in particular can be learned from a particular case. Semi-structured in-depth and focus group interviews (Morgan, 1997) are used for data collection, using interview guides developed by the research team. Emphasis is put on exploring the children’s voices, including child friendly, emancipatory approaches in addition to semi-structured in-depth interviews with children (age 12-18). To ensure children’s participation and agency, data is also collected through active instruments such as participatory place-based methods, child led tour “walk-along” interviews and short diaries and narratives (Dennis, et al, 2009). The analytical process takes place concurrently throughout the research period.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe paper presents preliminary findings from data collected in the eleven municipalities. The findings reveal various challenges that the children and families experience in maintaining their heritage language as well as learning Icelandic. Their language negotiations and language identities and general well-being at school are dependent on many different factors, including teaching practices, level of participation and inclusion, communication with peer groups, as well as cultural issues. The children who experience exclusion or other obstacles at school are often less motivated to learn the new language. However, some of the children have progressed in their studies and are active participants in social activities at school.
ReferencesBurns, T. (2008). Education and migration background research synthesis. Paris: OECD. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/37/53/40636545.pdf
Chumak-Horbatsch, R. (2012). Linguistically appropriate practice. A guide for working with young immigrant children. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Cummins, J. (2004). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual cildren in the crossfire (3rd edition). London: Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Gay, G. (2010). Classroom practices for teaching diversity: An example from Washington State (United States). In Educating teachers for diversity: Meeting the challenge (pp. 257–279). París: OECD Publishing. Retrieved from https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/educating-teachers-for-diversity_9789264079731-en
Hama, S. R. (2020). Experiences and expectations of successful immigrant and refugee students while in upper secondary schools in Iceland [Doctoral dissertation, University of Iceland]. Opin vísindi. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11815/2182
Hariri, K. E., Gunnþórsdóttir, H. & Meckl, M. (2020). Syrian students at the Arctic circle in Iceland. In N. Yeasmin, W. Hasanat, J. Brzozowski & S. Kirchner (Eds.), Immigration in the circumpolar north: integration and resilience. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429344275
Nusche, D. (2009). What works in migrant education? A review of evidence and policy options. OECD Education Working Papers, No. 22. Paris: OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/227131784531
Ragnarsdóttir, H. & Hama, S. R. (2018). Refugee children in Icelandic schools: Experiences of families and schools. In H. Ragnarsdóttir & S. Lefever (Eds.), Icelandic studies on diversity and social justice in education (pp. 82–104). Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Press.
Ragnarsdóttir, H. & Schmidt, C. (2014). Introduction. In H. Ragnarsdóttir & C. Schmidt (Eds.), Learning spaces for social justice: International perspectives on exemplary practices from preschool to secondary school (pp. 1–8). London: A Trentham Book. Institute of Education Press.
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