Time: Tuesday, 27/Aug/2024: 13:15 - 14:45 Session Chair: Moira Hulme |
Location: Room B229 in ΘΕΕ 02 (Faculty of Pure & Applied Sciences [FST02]) [Floor -2] Cap: 60 |
Paper
Teachers’ Work and the Marketisation of Schools: Quantitative Analysis of Teacher Control, Fulfilment and Buffering from Business Influences
Zayed University, United Arab Emirates
Presenting Author:The increasing presence and influence of international schools is a “well-kept secret” (Hayden & Thompson, 2008) hiding the influence of private organisations on global education policy and outside of national boundaries (Waterson, 2015). The international school sector has increased the non-state actors in global governance of education through privatisation of social service provision with new norms tied to business interests and non-state actors shaping education policy (Gunter & Fitzgerald, 2015). The result of this increasing presence of for-profit education management organisations as authorities on education policy has been significant normalisation of marketisation in education reform around the world. International schools are chronically under-researched, particularly the social processes and influence (Tarc & Mishra Tarc, 2015).
The marketisation of schools occurs in various forms where the lines between public and private provision are blurred (Ball, 2018). With such variety, marketisation may be just one of many interacting influences on schools and teachers’ work. This makes it potentially difficult to research when many confounding factors of governance and operation exist. International schools provide an excellent context in which to research teachers’ work where marketisation is a clear guiding force for school work.
For advocates of creating a market for schools, a competitive market of free enterprise is seen to revolutionise education (Friedman, 1997). The principles of competition, efficiency and accountability structural conditions of markets reinforce principles of rationality, efficiency and accountability. In schools, the market conditions are believed to boost student and school performance as well as the overall quality of education through competition and incentives to satisfy customers while striving to achieve profitable scale (Vander Ark, 2012). While a marketised system of schools is defended as potentially revolutionising education and benefitting teachers, the mechanism for how marketisation affects teachers and their work to obtain this outcome are often unclear. Understanding the work of teachers and schools as workplaces is a necessary step to recognising the process.
Schools are not simply a learning environment housed inside a building, they are workplaces structured by systems, resources, relationships and practises that shape what teachers are able to do and, in turn, what students can learn (Biesta, 2011). An important aspect of research about teachers’ work is the emotional experience of teaching. Teachers’ descriptions of the fulfilment they receive from their work may include pride in their students’ achievement scores or feelings about the events in their teaching career but also key is how teacher’s experience emotions related to the context of their work. In the literature, many different types of emotions are described like hope, passion, emotional labour, burnout and demoralisation among other terms. Within the context of marketisation, it becomes even more important to understand teachers’ work and their workplace. In this research, the marketisation of schools and the implications for teachers’ experiences are the focus.
Previous research has noted the necessity of finding out the relationship between marketisation and teachers’ experiences at work. Specifically for international schools, Bunnell et al (2016) call for research to focus on the “impact and effects not just ideology and existence” (p. 556) of international schools. In the international school sector, the marketisation of schools and its influences on teachers becomes a prominent feature of any discussion. As all kinds of schools are becoming increasingly marketised, it becomes necessary to see teachers as a vital part of the education process and understand how the effects of marketisation impact their work. We must ask: What are teachers’ experiences in marketised contexts? How are the influences on their work related?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used
The data analysis of this project included three stages of semi-structured interviews to create themes of teachers’ work, a mixed-method pilot of the items created based on those interviews and, finally a large scale quantitative data collection and analysis using Rasch analysis (Rasch, 1960). While the overall project was a mixed-methods investigation, only the quantitative results of two of the scales are included.
To include as many international school teachers as possible for the quantitative data collection, a time-location sampling strategy was used (Magnani, Sabin, Saidel & Heckathorn, 2005). International hiring fairs for international schools occurring in Bangkok, Thailand; Dubai, UAE; and London, England allowed for access to current and prospective international school teachers. A total of 204 responses were collected with 87 (43%) collected at two hiring fairs in Bangkok, 66 (32%) collected in London and 51 (25%) collected in Dubai. The sample included teachers working in many different kinds of schools from around the globe.
The questionnaire items were created based on the main themes of the interviews and to be answerable with Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree and Strongly Disagree. The questionnaire was piloted and analysed with Mokken Scale Analysis using the software MSP5 (Molenaar & Sijtsma, 2000) to reduce the number of items. The final scales were analysed with Rasch analysis to find the overall pattern of the items, to investigate differential item functioning based on demographics and find misfitting items. The relationship between a participants’s ability and difficulty on a set of related items then allows us to calculate a measurement on that scale for each participant that can be used in further analysis (Bond and Fox, 2015). Winsteps was used for the analysis (Linacre, 2023).
Path analysis was used as the final step of the analysis as an extension of multiple regression to look at more complicated relations among the variables (Streiner, 2005). Path analysis was chosen because it could be used to create the structural model between the Rasch-calibrated measures for each person on each scale. The strength of path analysis is that variables can act as both predictors of other variables and be predicted by other variables. Where multiple regression constricts variables to being either dependent or independent, a variable can play both roles in path analysis. The path analysis was conducted in SPSS AMOS (Arbuckle, 2014).
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings
Overall this research demonstrated the patterns related to marketisation of teachers’ work and how it interacts with teachers’ experiences at work. The complexity of the relationship between buffering and fulfilment as well as the importance of control over work are described. The nuance of the patterns of marketisation for teachers across contexts, types of schools and other factors have demonstrated a range of negative effects on teachers within a model of influences on their work. Marketisation could only be assumed a neutral force if teacher fulfilment and professional autonomy are not valued. The humanity of the people working in schools, the quality of their work life, and their perceptions are valuable when we see teachers as integral to the complex process of education in schools. The oversimplification of schools as an industry that can deliver a product of education ignores that teacher fulfilment, control and participation in decision making are vital for successful student outcomes.
This research demonstrates that a marketised school may have successful teachers who feel control over their work, but this potentially is due to the strength of the buffering they receive from business influences, and is unlikely to be a result of market forces improving education. This means that excellent education may be happening in private and marketised schools despite market influences rather than because of them.
While the findings of this research apply to teachers from a variety of types of schools, the understanding of how marketisation affects teachers seems especially pertinent to international schools. With the dramatic growth of international schools and increasing number of students in private, for-profit schools world-wide, school governors must think carefully about the threats to teacher fulfilment and control that come with subjecting teachers to the business influences that inevitably pressure them in a marketised school environment.
References
Arbuckle JL (2014) IBM SPSS Amos 24 [computer software]. Chicago, IL: IBM SPSS.
Ball SJ (2018) Commercialising education: profiting from reform! Journal of Education Policy 33(5): 587–589. DOI: 10.1080/02680939.2018.1467599.
Ball SJ (2007) Education Plc: Understanding Private Sector Participation in Public Sector Education. UK, USA and Canada: Routledge.
Bond, T. and Fox, C.M. (2015) Applying the Rasch Model: Fundamental Measurement in the Human Sciences, Third Edition. 3rd edn. New York, NY, US: Routlege.
Biesta GJ (2011) From Learning Cultures to Educational Cultures: Values and Judgements in Educational Research and Educational Improvement. International Journal of Early Childhood 43(3): 199–210. DOI: 10.1007/s13158-011-0042-x.
Friedman M (1997) Public Schools: Make Them Private. Education Economics 5(3): 341–344. DOI: 10.1080/09645299700000026.
Gunter HM and Fitzgerald T (2015) Educational administration and neoliberalism: historical and contemporary perspectives. Journal of Educational Administration and History 47(2): 101–104. DOI: 10.1080/00220620.2015.1002388.
Hayden M and Thompson J (2008) International Schools: Growth and Influence. Paris, France: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Linacre, J. M. (2023) Winsteps® Rasch measurement computer program (Version 5.6.0). Portland, Oregon: Winsteps.com
Magnani, R. et al. (2005) ‘Review of sampling hard-to-reach and hidden populations for HIV surveillance’, Aids, 19, pp. S67–S72.
Molenaar, I.W. and Sijtsma, K. (2000) ‘MPS5 for Windows. A program for Mokken scale analysis for polytomous items’. Groningen: Iec ProGAMMA.
Rasch, G. (1960) Studies in mathematical psychology: I. Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests. Oxford, UK: Nielsen & Lydiche (Studies in mathematical psychology: I. Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests.).
Tarc P and Mishra Tarc A (2015) Elite international schools in the Global South: transnational space, class relationalities and the ‘middling’ international schoolteacher. British Journal of Sociology of Education 36(1): 34–52. DOI: 10.1080/01425692.2014.971945.
Vander Ark T (2012) Private Capital, For-Profit Enterprises and Public Education. In: Stanfield JB (ed.) The Profit Motive in Education: Continuing the Revolution. London, UK: The Institute of Economic Affairs, pp. 191–203. Available at: http://mikemcmahon.info/EducationInvestment09.pdf.
Waterson M (2015) An analysis of the growth of transnational corporations operating international schools and the potential impact of this growth on the nature of the education offered. Working Papers Series International and Global Issues for Research. University of Bath Department of Education Working Papers Series. Available at: https://www.bath.ac.uk/publications/department-of-education-working-papers/attachments/analysis-of-growth-transnational-corporations-operating-international-schools.pdf.
Paper
Strategies for Principled Resistance: the Practical-evaluative Dimension of Teacher Agency at Work
1NHLStenden University, Netherlands, The; 2University of Groningen, Netherlands, The
Presenting Author:The importance of professional autonomy for the well-being of teachers and for the quality of education has often been demonstrated (e.g. Fullan, 2007). Much research is done about the way in which management can influence a healthy and motivating work environment by creating professional space (Kessels, 2012; Kuijpers et al., 2023; Schaufeli & Taris, 2013). Much less is known, however, about the role that teachers themselves (can) play in influencing that environment. Teachers can reproduce or interrupt cultures and structures (Priestley et al., 2015). Currently, increasing attention is being paid to 'teacher agency', in short defined as: the ability of teachers to exert targeted and effective influence on educational practice (Toom et al., 2015).
To add to this body of research, we focus on the agency of teachers in Dutch Early Childhood Education (ECE). In their ecological approach to agency, Priestley et al. (2015) distinguish three dimensions of agency that play a role in the realization of this agency. The iterational aspect (accumulated expertise) is rooted in the past. The projective dimension (aspirations, motivations) is focused on the future. The practical-evaluative dimension (the day-to-day decisions in the complex context of educational practice) is an important connecting element between the former two dimensions.
Agency is important when it comes to being resilient in the face of educational innovations imposed by the environment (Priestley et al., 2015). Key to this resilience is the ability to critically assess requested changes, based on specific professional expertise (Edwards, 2015). If such an evaluation turns out to be negative, agency takes the form of offering 'principled resistance', that, according to Achinstein and Ogawa (2006), is based on professional principles. These principles are rooted in widely shared beliefs about education and professionalism and cannot do without reflective capacity and the willingness to change.
The literature on agency mostly focuses on the importance of professional dialogue for the substantive evaluation of educational practice (Edwards 2015). In addition, however, it is also important to evaluate: to what extent is it possible to act according to that evaluation? And if this is not sufficiently the case: how can we influence this? With these questions, a more political dimension of agency emerges. Kelchtermans and Ballet (2005) define micropolitical literacy as 'strategies and tactics used by individuals and groups in an organization to defend their interests' (p. 90). Insight into political dynamics is a crucial part of the practical-evaluative dimension of agency, especially in restricted work environments.
In this paper, we focus on the practical-evaluative dimension of agency in ECE teachers. We are specifically interested in the strategies and tactics used by teachers to improve their working conditions in situations where they are hindered in carrying out their daily work in line with their professional views. We therefore pose the research question: How do teachers in groups 1 and 2 of Dutch primary schools respond to autonomy-limiting influences from the environment?
Based on interview stories of teachers who feel constrained by the environment to act according to their professional views, we show that teachers can actively use their specific context as a source for strengthening their agency. The results reveal a multitude of very diverse strategies by which teachers respond to autonomy-limiting circumstances. Analysis shows that successful strategies, i.e. strategies that protect professional autonomy, are based on an open dialogue about, critical reflection on, and inquiry into both educational content and political context.
The results are summarized in a model. This model will be presented, clarified and illustrated with empirical data.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used
Data collection
Examining teacher agency requires studying teachers in their daily practices and methods of inquiry should be aimed at accessing the judgments, intentional actions and evaluations of these teachers (Edwards et al., 2015). In line with these recommendations, we have opted for qualitative research methods. Eight experienced teachers, who have worked for at least ten years in the first two grades of primary school, were interviewed in a series of three extensive, open interviews, at yearly intervals. An exploration of the relevant literature led to a number of broad sensitizing concepts (Boeije, 2012) that functioned as the main topics in the interviews: vision (professional beliefs), context (facilitating and hindering factors in the work environment), effects (consequences for practice) and strategies (reactions to autonomy-limiting influences). An interview guide served as a semi-structured checklist. The interview questions were open and the respondent was given room to follow their own storyline. All interviews were recorded with permission. In this contribution, we report on the analysis of the data related to the topic of Strategies.
Research group
The relatively small research group of eight people made it possible to collect rich information over a longer period of time. The respondents were purposive stratified (Boeije, 2012). The teachers differed equally in two respects. Firstly, their perception of the professional space. To distinguish the participants on this, we asked them the question: Do you experience pressure stemming from your work environment to work with young children in ways other than those you perceive as desirable? (yes/no). Secondly, the respondents' previous education differed equally. Previous research has shown that differences in prior education (KLOS or PABO) influenced the professional belief and perceived competences of teachers in the youngest groups of primary school.
Analysis
Verbatim transcripts have been analyzed thematically (Braun & Clark, 2006). Analysis was done using Atlas.ti, through descriptive coding that alternated between open and axial coding. During this analysis process, research question memos were kept. Regarding specific sub-questions that surfaced in this analysis process, additional deductive analyses was performed.
Reliability
Inter-rater reliability was sought throughout the research process. The developing code tree and research question memos were discussed in the research team at all stages of the research. The analyzed data have been summarized in extensive synthesis texts that have been sent to the respondents. In a follow-up interview, all respondents confirmed the interpretations (member check).
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings
The study provides insight into the way in which the practical-evaluative dimension of teacher agency takes shape in everyday ECE practices. The specific context can both facilitatee and hinder the autonomy of teachers, however, teachers themselves can also actively use the context as a source to strengthen their agency. In the interviews, three strategies emerged as the most important: dialogue, critical reflection, and inquiry. A work-environment in which these central strategies are facilitated, for example by making time available to discuss, investigate and reflect on (new) educational content, the environment supports the balance between openness to change and faithfulness to professional expertise and values. In an environment in which innovations are imposed top-down, such a balance is much more difficult to achieve. To stay true to their own professional expertise, teachers also use the three strategies of dialogue, reflection, and inquiry. In doing so, the wider environment of the school is used more. In addition to focusing on the educational content, the three strategies in this restrictive situation also have a stronger focus on the political environment.
The study underlines the importance of collegial relationships. First, regarding the content of teaching, where professional dialogue between colleagues is a source of solid, shared, and conscious expertise and professional self-confidence (see also Fullan, 2007; Wenger, 2010; März & Kelchtermans, 2020). In addition, and especially in restrictive environments, collegial relationships are also of great importance for experiencing emotional support. A well-considered judgement about an imposed change and the perceived support of colleagues are an important basis for offering principled resistance. Additionally, as also shown by Vähäsatanen and Eteläpelto (2015), emotions that arise in this situation can also be a catalyst for teacher agency.
Implications for practice will be discussed during the presentation.
References
Achinstein, B., & Ogawa, R. T. (2006). (In)fidelity: What the resistance of new teachers reveals about professional principles and prescriptive educational policies. Harvard Educational Review, 76(1), 30-63.
Boeije, H. R. (2012). Analyseren in kwalitatief onderzoek: Denken en doen [Analysis in qualitative research. Thinking and doing]. The Hague, the Netherlands: Boom onderwijs.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
Edwards, A. (2015) Recognising and realising teachers’ professional agency, Teachers and Teaching, 21(6), 779-784, DOI: 10.1080/13540602.2015.1044333
Fullan, M. (2007). The new meaning of educational change (4th ed.). New York: Teachers College Press.
Kelchtermans, G., & Ballet, K. (2005). Micropolitieke geletterdheid en professionele ontwikkeling bij beginnende leerkrachten. Pedagogiek (Assen), 25(2), 89–102.
Kessels, J. W. (2012). Leiderschapspraktijken in een professionele ruimte. Oratie. [Leadership practices in a professional space. Inaugural lecture] The Netherlands: Open University.
Kuijpers, C.T.L., Janssen-Spanbroek, N.F., & van den Hurk M.M. (2023). De invloed van gespreid leiderschap op de professionalisering van leraren. Pedagogiosche Studiën (100) p. 287-308.
März, V., & Kelchtermans, G. (2020). The networking teacher in action: A qualitative analysis of early career teachers’ induction process. Teaching and Teacher Education. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. tate. 2019. 102933.
Priestley, M., Biesta, G. J. J., & Robinson, S. (2015). Teacher agency. An ecological approach. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Schaufeli, W., & Taris, T. (2013). Het job demands-resources model: overzicht en kritische beschouwing. [The Job Demands-Resources Model: Overview and Critical Review.] Gedrag & Organisatie, 26(2), 182-204.
Toom, A., Pyhältö, K. and Rust, F.O. (2015). Teachers’ professional agency in contradictory times, Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 21(6), 615-623.
Vähäsantanen, K., & Eteläpelto, A. (2015). Professional agency, identity, and emotions while leaving one’s work organization. Professions & Professionalism, 5(3), 1394- 1410.
Wenger, E. (2010). Communities of practice and social learning systems: The career of a concept. In Social Learning Systems and Communities of Practice, edited by C. Blackmore, pp. 179-198. London: Springer-Verlag London Limited.
Paper
Teachers' Time Use in Scotland: Workload Intensification in Challenging Times
1University of the West of Scotland; 2Cardiff Metropolitan University; 3Birmingham City University
Presenting Author:The teaching workforce in and beyond Europe is facing unprecedented challenges. Many European school systems face teacher shortages as recruitment targets are missed and rates of attrition rise. Challenging employment conditions saw industrial action by teachers in France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Spain, Portugal and the UK in 2022 and 2023. The European Trade Union Committee for Education (ETUCE) and European Federation of Education Employers joint Framework of Actions in response to the declining attractiveness of the teaching profession signalled a need for adequate pay, and equitable and sustainable workloads (ETUCE-EFEE, 2023). Teachers report reform fatigue, emotional exhaustion, and burnout as they contend with multiple new initiatives, the impact of the pandemic on learner progress and wellbeing, stringent accountability demands, increasing class size, and diverse learner needs (Heffernan et al., 2022; OECD, 2023). Advances in communications technology mean that educators are increasingly deemed available outside traditional school hours.
This paper reports research commissioned by the largest teacher union in Scotland, the Educational Institute of Scotland, in response to workload concerns expressed by teachers in Scotland’s schools. This examination of teachers’ time use attends to both the number of hours and the nature or constitution of hours spent on work inside and out of the classroom and school. Workload is approached here not just in terms of working hours (volume) but also intensity (i.e., job-related demands in relation to available resources) (Stacey et al., 2022). The study considers the relationship between workload, teacher stress and work intensity and manageability (Creagh et al, 2023; Liu et al., 2023).
Workload reduction initiatives have tended to place primary responsibility on educators rather than the institutional and policy context in which they work (Spicksley, 2022). In contrast, this research adopts a social-ecological approach that acknowledges the importance of context in shaping the capacity of teachers to respond well to job-related stressors.
The following research questions are addressed:
- What are the main activities that constitute teacher workload?
- What is the balance of this workload over the working week?
- What extra hours do teachers, on average and by characteristic (education setting, gender, contract type), work beyond their contractual hours?
- Where do workload demands come from outwith class contact time?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used
The main methods of data collection were an online time use diary during one calendar week (using QuestionPro online survey platform) followed by semi-structured remote interviews. A survey link was distributed via workplace email to EIS members currently employed in schools. This method allowed for as close-to-real-time registration of activities without placing an undue burden on participants (te Braak et al., 2023). Participants recorded the full range of work-related activities undertaken over the preceding working days (including evenings) and weekend (i.e., the hours they must work, the hours they do work, and the nature and drivers of work-related activity). Digital diaries were preferred to paper leave-behind diaries because they are cost-effective, permit stronger communication with participants and make completion as easy as possible for those taking part (Sullivan et al., 2020) to not add further to teachers’ workload. They also show no more social desirability issues than offline surveys (Dodou, & de Winter, 2014). A self-completed electronic diary was preferred to a telephone recall diary to eliminate potential for interviewer bias (Allan et al., 2020). Comparison of the quality of data obtained through time-use diaries and direct observation has shown that teachers can reliably self-report their working time retrospectively (Vannest and Hagan-Burke, 2010).
Pre-coded activities in the time use diary were generated in consultation with a volunteer teacher panel comprised of twelve primary and secondary teachers employed in four local authorities with a range of roles and varied length of experience. The contribution of panel members informed the design of the time use diary and reduced the risk of partial completion by respondents. The School Staff Census was used to assess proportionality against teaching and demographic characteristics (self-reported gender, age, main role in school, phase, length of teaching experience, tenure/contract type, local authority (Scottish Government Learning Directorate, 2022).
Phase two of the research involved semi-structured interviews of 45 minutes duration with thirty teachers to deepen the analysis beyond the number of working hours to factors that explain composition of work patterns. Flexibility was offered in terms of the mode of remote interview – telephone or online video call - to accommodate interviewee preferences, availability and location. Analysis of verbatim interview transcripts was supported by NVivo software. A small sample of transcripts was coded independently by two researchers who then met to discuss appropriate codes and clarify inconsistencies. This process of cross-checking informed the coding of the remainder of the transcripts.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings
This research provides new evidence on how statutory and actual working time is spent (nature, scale and scope) and the factors that explain emergent patterns in time use among teachers in Scotland. The findings confirm a marked divergence between actual working time and the time that is recognised. Non-teaching tasks with less direct links to educational benefit for learners are more likely to be perceived as contributing to workload burden. Teachers report a reduction in autonomy over the use of time in face-to-face and non-teaching tasks (i.e., working time inflexibility). In particular, the fragmentation of tasks and escalation of routine administrative activity restricts time available for relationship building and pastoral care. As a result, teachers contend with difficult choices and considerable ambiguity between what constitutes high value core work and directed activity for accountability purposes. Excess working time and limited task discretion have important implications for professional identity, motivation, and career intentions.
References
Creagh, S., Thompson, G., Mockler, N., Stacey, M., & Hogan, A. (2023) Workload, work intensification and time poverty for teachers and school leaders: a systematic research synthesis, Educational Review, DOI: 10.1080/00131911.2023.2196607.
Dodou, D., & de Winter, J. C. (2014). Social desirability is the same in offline, online, and paper surveys: A meta-analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 36, 487-495.
ETUCE-EFEE (2023) Framework of Actions on the Attractiveness of the Teaching Profession, https://www.csee-etuce.org/en/resources/policy-papers/5106-framework-of-actions-on-the-attractiveness-of-the-teaching-profession .
Heffernan, A., Bright, D., Kim, M., Longmuir, F., & Magyar, B. (2022). I cannot sustain the workload and the emotional toll’: Reasons behind Australian teachers’ intentions to leave the profession. Australian Journal of Education, 66(2),196–209.
Liu, T., Yang, X., Meng, F. & Wang, Q. (2023) Teachers Who are Stuck in Time: Development and Validation of Teachers’ Time Poverty Scale, Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 16, 2267-2281.
OECD (2023). Unravelling the layers of teachers’ work-related stress, Teaching in Focus, No. 46, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/bca86c20-en.
Scottish Government Learning Directorate (2022) Schools in Scotland 2022: summary statistics. https://www.gov.scot/publications/summary-statistics-for-schools-in-scotland-2022/documents/
Spicksley, K. (2022) Hard work / workload: discursive constructions of teacher work in policy and practice, Teachers and Teaching, 28(5), 517-532.
Stacey, M., Wilson, R. & McGrath-Champ, S. (2022) Triage in teaching: the nature and impact of workload in schools, Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 42(4), 772-785.
te Braak, P., van Tienoven, T. P., Minnen, J., & Glorieux, I. (2023). Data Quality and Recall Bias in Time-Diary Research: The Effects of Prolonged Recall Periods in Self-Administered Online Time-Use Surveys. Sociological Methodology, 53(1), 115-138.