99. Emerging Researchers' Group (for presentation at Emerging Researchers' Conference)
Paper
Role of Social Inequality in Shaping Learning Processes in Classrooms in India
Akshita Rawat
University of Vienna, Austria
Presenting Author: Rawat, Akshita
This paper aims to understand how inequalities manifest in classrooms in India and interact with learning processes. It will focus on the pedagogic practices utilised by teachers in the classroom, specifically the classification and framing rules of knowledge and pedagogy, to understand the relations of power and control lying within the classrooms. This paper is based on an ethnographic study conducted in the government schools of Delhi which aimed at understanding the role of the social identity- the intersection of caste, class, religious, and gender identity- of the learner in mediating the teaching-learning practices and relations in the classroom to facilitate the learning process.
Several studies and assessment surveys worldwide have indicated a link between socio-economic background of students and their schooling experiences. PISA analysis has highlighted the gaps in learning outcomes between students from advantaged and disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds. Even within schools in India, disparities in learning outcomes are indicated by the poor performance of students from marginalised caste/class groups in arithmetic and language skills. Often poor performance is concentrated in rural or government-run schools. This is furthered by a stratified schooling system wherein students from marginalised castes and the working class attend the majority of the government-run (public) schools, while the most (more expensive) private schools are attended majorly by the middle and upper class/castes. Theories of social class reproduction have been used to analyse schools as sites for the recreation and solidifying of inequalities by embodying the dominant culture or middle-class habitus, developing skills compatible with hierarchical positions, and as a state apparatus for exercising control and hegemony. Studies have indicated the existence of prejudices and discrimination in the schooling experiences of students from marginalised groups but there is limited research that examines the impact of socio-economic differences directly on learning processes especially in the urban context.
This paper uses Basil Bernstein’s theoretical framework that analyses the dialectical relationship of structural inequalities and agency by looking at the relations of power and control at the macro (knowledge production) and also micro (recontextualization) level of the classroom where inequalities can be negotiated or legitimised. Although the conceptualisation originates from a European context, Bernstein provides a comprehensive framework to understand the learning processes in a classroom where the intersection of structural inequalities permeate in light of the gaps in learning outcomes between advantaged and disadvantaged students. This paper theoretically engages with Bernstein and tries to expand the framework beyond social class to include the intersection of identities of caste, religion, class, and gender.
Bernstein explains the pedagogic code of schools as an elaborated code which is transmitted through variations in classification degree ("organisational" elements of pedagogy or “degree of boundary maintenance” of contents) and framing of knowledge (interactional elements of knowledge or degree of control over selection, pacing, and organisation) at the level of instructional discourse and regulative discourse. These shape the power and control relations between teachers, students, knowledge structures, etc. Bernstein argues that although schools reward students with the orientation that enables them to access the context-independent knowledge structures of the school, it is also needed to enable an environment that recognises the identity of working-class students and does not hold a deficit view of marginalised people.
By following this line of inquiry, the paper tries to address the overarching research question: what pedagogic practices (including what knowledge [classification] and how it is transmitted [framing]) are used by the teachers to recontextualize knowledge in the classroom?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe methodological foundation for this study is provided by Roy Bhaskar’s conceptualisation of critical realism as a means of understanding the relationship between social structure and social action. Social structures are reproduced and transformed by everyday action while also containing and enabling agency, and can be observed through their effects and causal relationships in the material world.
This study takes a qualitative approach using methods of ethnography and participant observation in a government-run school in Delhi. Ethnography and participant observation enable studying a context holistically, revealing the social relations of the group and the social processes while practising the dialectical relationship of intimacy and estrangement. Continuous action-oriented interviews are conducted with teachers to understand their perspectives, strategies employed in the classrooms, and reasons behind the pedagogic processes which will complement observational data. Informal conversations with students also help understand and get feedback on the teaching-learning practices in the classroom. It also contributes to understanding the recognition and realisation rules possessed by them which enable them to recognise a particular context, understand the appropriate response to it (make meaning) and produce that response.
The collected data will be coded using NVivo. For analysis, a combination of Gee’s (1999) approach to critical discourse analyses (CDA) and Bernstein’s framework will be used as both focus on discourse and the link between language and social practice. Gee (1999) provides tools to operationalize the analysis of language (written and spoken), everyday talk and identify discourse pervasive among teachers and students that is used to make meaning, position individuals (to form biases and prejudices), construct and deconstruct identity (of both teacher and student) and inform teaching-learning practices. This will be integrated into Bernstein’s framework, which will help analyse processes of transmission, acquisition and evaluation of knowledge in the classroom.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThis paper contributes to the emerging literature on understanding the role of socio-economic differences on learning. It also contributes to understanding “why” and “how” the gaps in learning outcomes between students from advantaged and disadvantaged backgrounds occur. It understands advantages and disadvantages as a sociological phenomenon i.e. as a condition of stigma, segregation and inequality that exist in Western societies as well. This can add to the developing work on the interplay of social structure and power and control relations in the classroom and its role in shaping learning processes.
The paper highlights the strategies and methods used by teachers to make taught content significant in the classroom, and highlight the rules of criteria, whether they are explicit rules that allow students to understand what is the legitimate text in the classroom or are implicit that allow questioning and rethinking of the evaluation criteria and rules of pacing of knowledge. It helps to understand assumptions of social identity (class, caste, etc.) that shape pedagogic practices. Specifically, the teachers’ perceptions and ideas towards students, about teaching in government-run schools and how those shape their pedagogical approaches and also students' self-perception. It will also show the advantages or disadvantages learners have over each other by virtue of their social location. Another aspect highlights the nature of the relationship of the teacher-students, student-student and the position of the teacher within the larger structure of the schooling institution (rules of hierarchy).
The findings will overall help understand how knowledge is recontextualised in the classroom and how teachers incorporate and utilise students' identities and orientations in the classroom.
Furthermore, this paper understands learning as a process that promotes participation and access to academic discourse while also recognising local knowledge. This can also help understand students' motivations and interests in schooling and learning.
ReferencesAnnual Status of Education Report. (2020). Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2019 Early Years’.
Batra, P. (2015). Curriculum in India: Narratives, Debates, and a Deliberative Agenda. In Pinar, W. (Ed.), Curriculum studies in India: Intellectual histories, present circumstances (pp 35-63). Springer.
Barrett, B. D. (2017). Bernstein in the urban classroom: A case study. British Journal of sociology of education, 38(8), 1258-1272.
Bernstein, B. (1964). Elaborated and restricted codes: Their social origins and some consequences. American anthropologist, 66(6), 55-69.
Bernstein, B. (1990). Class, codes and control: The structuring of pedagogic discourse (Vol. 4).
Bernstein, B. (1999). Vertical and horizontal discourse: An essay. British journal of sociology of Education, 20(2), 157-173
Bernstein, B. (2004). Social class and pedagogic practice. The RoutledgeFalmer reader in sociology of education, 196-217.
Desai, S., Adams, C. D., & Dubey, A. (2010). Segmented Schooling: Inequalities in Primary Education. In Thorat, S., & Neuman, K. S. (Eds.), Blocked by Caste: Economic Discrimination in Modern India (pp. 230-252). Oxford University Press.
Gee, J. P. (1999). An introduction to discourse analysis: Theory and method. Routledge.
Hoadley, Ursula & Muller, Johan. (2010). Codes, Pedagogy and Knowledge: Advances in Bernsteinian Sociology of Education. The Routledge International Handbook of the Sociology of Education. Routledge.
Hoff, K., & Pandey, P. (2006). Discrimination, social identity, and durable inequalities. American economic review, 96(2), 206-211.
Hoff, K., & Pandey, P. (2014). Making up people—The effect of identity on performance in a modernizing society. Journal of Development Economics, 106, 118-131.
Majumdar, M., & Mooij, J. E. (2011). Education and inequality in India: A classroom view (Vol. 46). Routledge.
Morais, A. M. (2002). Basil Bernstein at the micro level of the classroom. British journal of sociology of education, 23(4), 559-569.
Nambissan, G. B. (2010). Exclusion and Discrimination in Schools: Experiences of Dalit Children. In Thorat, S., & Neuman, K. S. (Eds.), Blocked by Caste: Economic Discrimination in Modern India (pp. 253-286). Oxford University Press.
Sachar, R., Hamid, S., Oommen, T. K., Basith, M. A., Basant, R., Majeed, A., & Shariff, A. (2006). Social, economic and educational status of the Muslim community of India (No. 22136). East Asian Bureau of Economic Research.
Sayed, Y., Subrahmanian, R., Soudien, C., Carrim, N., Balgopalan, S., Nekhwevha, F., & Samuel, M. (2007). Education exclusion and inclusion: Policy and implementation in South Africa and India. London: Department for International Development.
99. Emerging Researchers' Group (for presentation at Emerging Researchers' Conference)
Paper
Opportunities for Small Schools in Hungary
Noémi Hajdu
University of Pécs, Hungary
Presenting Author: Hajdu, Noémi
In Hungary, after the change of regime in 1990, a number of educational policy changes affected primary schools, which also had a major impact on students' opportunities for further education. These changes in the education system are strongly influenced by both social and economic factors (Andl, 2015, 2020; Halász, 2001), which in the case of Hungarian schools can be mainly seen in the processes of centralisation and decentralisation (Kozma, 2014). In the 1990s, subsidies to local governments played an important role in the life of educational institutions, as they led to a significant increase in the number of schools (Andl, 2015; Imre, 1997). However, the decade was also characterised by segregation in education policy, which mainly affected Roma pupils (Forray, 2009; Forray & Pálmainé Orsós, 2010), and was also contributed to by the right of parents to choose their schools (Havas et al, 2001). This was changed by the integration efforts of the early 2000s, which were also reflected in the school scene. The Integration Pedagogical System (IPS) was established within this framework, providing significant support to the institutions participating in the programme for almost a decade. By 2012, it had been implemented in 2.000 public education institutions and had reached more than 100.000 pupils (Híves, 2016). The „Széll Kálmán Plan”, introduced in 2010, reflects the drive to centralise education: „the state must return to the world of education. The quality of education should not depend on the situation and ad hoc decisions of local governments, the state can bring uniform order in this area” (Széll Kálmán Plan, 2010 cited in Györgyi, 2019, p. 214).
In my research, I will mainly examine the impact of these interventions through the example of an institution that has innovated a lot in the space of thirty years, but is now under threat of closure due to a drastic reduction in the number of students. This institution is one of the participants in the career guidance mentoring programme in which I am involved as a junior researcher. The child-centred pedagogical work in the school and the dedication of the teachers struck me when I was doing input research for this research and development programme. It was then that I began to wonder how, despite its positive values, the survival of the school was threatened.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedMy research is a case study, using both quantitative and qualitative research tools and it is exploratory and I have formulated the following questions:
1. How the changes mentioned above have affected this process. How have they affected the educational opportunities of disadvantaged and Roma pupils in the school?
2. What elements of the school's life can be classified under the aspects of the SWOT analysis?
In order to answer my questions, I conducted semi-structured interviews with the teachers of the school (N=5). Three of them were interviewed individually, but all five teachers participated in the focus group discussion. Participation in the interviews was voluntary. I interviewed teachers who had been employees of the institution for at least 2/3 of the period under study (about 20 years). Content analysis was carried out on the transcripts of the interviews using an inductive approach, supplemented with education statistics. During my participant observations, I visited classrooms and participated in other extra-curricular activities with a class from the school. A thorough review of the relevant literature on the subject helped me to get a general idea of the process I was studying.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe last 34 years of the institution under review can be divided into three periods:
1. 1990-2003: the newly appointed headmaster brought many changes to the school, which were most evident in the development of the teaching staff.
2. 2003-2007: the integrationist education policy of the early 2000s gave a new impetus to improvements. Exemplary pedagogical work was carried out in the institution, reinforced by the support provided by the Integrated Pedagogical System.
3. From 2007 until present day: from 2007 onwards, the institution gradually lost its autonomy. In that year the institution became a member school of a multi-purpose association of local authorities, and in 2013 the state took over the maintenance of the public education institutions.
It was the last third of the period under review that jeopardised the school's survival. During this period, the school suffered a sudden and sharp reduction in staff numbers, which, although it has eased, has not stopped. There has been a constant turnover of teachers and a decline in the representation of young teachers.
My case study shows that the situation of small schools in Hungary has become hopeless. The experience of previous years shows that, with sufficient financial support and a more decentralised education system, institutions can be more viable than in the current situation, where the long distance between the school and the institution is to the detriment of the school and its pupils.
ReferencesAndl, H. (2015). A kisiskolák és nemzetiségi oktatás összefüggésrendszerének néhány
aspektusáról. Romológia, 3(9), 36-55.
Andl, H. (2020). A kisiskolák és lehetőségeik. Educatio, 8(3), 409-424.
Forray, R. K. (2009). Hátrányos helyzet – a cigányság az iskolában. Educatio, 18(4), 436-
446.
Forray, R. K. & Pálmainé Orsós, A. (2010). Hátrányos helyzetű vagy kulturális kisebbség
– cigány programok. Educatio, 19(1), 75-87.
Györgyi, Z. (2019). Célok és következmények: tanügyirányításunk átalakítása. Educatio,
28(2), 211-227. https://doi.org/10.1556/2063.28.2019.2.1
Halász, G. (2001). Az oktatási rendszer. Műszaki Könyvkiadó, Budapest.
Havas, G., Kemény, I. & Liskó, I. (2001). Cigány gyerekek az általános iskolákban.
Oktatáskutató Intézet, Budapest.
Híves, T. (2016). Halmozottan hátrányos helyzetű tanulók és az Integrációs Pedagógiai
Rendszerben résztvevők statisztikai elemzése. Autonómia és Felelősség, 2(1), 21-41.
Imre, A. (1997). Kistelepülési iskolák. Educatio, 6(1).
Kozma, T. (2014). A központosítás haszna és ára. Educatio, 23(1), 3-12.
Varga, A. (2018). A hazai oktatási integrációs tapasztalatok és a korai iskolaelhagyás
megelőzése. In: Fejes, J. B. & Szűcs, N. (Eds.): Én vétkem. Helyzetkép az oktatási
szegregációról. Motiváció Oktatási Egyesület, Szeged.
99. Emerging Researchers' Group (for presentation at Emerging Researchers' Conference)
Paper
Educational Poverty of Minors from Migrant Backgrounds. A Multidimensional Approach for Social Inclusion.
Francesca Gabrielli
Roma Tre University, Italy
Presenting Author: Gabrielli, Francesca
The research work falls within the framework of the educational poverty phenomenon, which, thanks to the contributions of studies and research, as well as a legislative path incentivized – also – by advocacy efforts from the Third Sector (Save the Children, 2014), has become central in recent years in scientific and political discourse, entering the realm of public policy agendas.
The notion of poverty in the educational context emerged in the social sciences discourse in the late 1990s to draw attention to the multidimensionality of the poverty phenomenon (Anand & Sen, 1997), not entirely reducible to purely economic aspects.
Over the past two decades, there has been extensive discourse in the literature regarding the significance of measuring and analyzing educational poverty (Allmendinger & Leibfried, 2003; Lohmann & Ferger, 2014). It has been emphasized that the impact of educational deprivation is subtle, creating a gap during a vulnerable period that proves challenging to overcome later in life (Battilocchi, 2020). An initial disadvantage can result in a crystallization of the same across different generations and transform cultural factors into hereditary elements, in a vicious circle of poverty.
Numerous international and national organizations have directed attention to poverty and educational challenges, with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development addressing these issues (United Nations General Assembly, 2015). Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 1 emphasizes the need to eradicate poverty in all its forms, while SDG 4 aims to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education, promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all. Moreover, many European strategies and recommendations have focused on addressing issues related to poverty and education, starting with the Lisbon Strategy (European Council, 2000).
In this context, accurate measures of educational poverty are crucial for designing effective policy interventions, and local data play a vital role in tailoring actions to specific communities. A review of the scientific literature reveals that the dimensions and measures of educational poverty are not fully developed. In fact, despite numerous studies on the subject (Agasisti et al., 2021; Botezat, 2016), there is still a lack of shared theorization of this notion to date. Educational poverty is understood as a polysemic concept with broad semantic boundaries, multidimensional, and depicted by a poly-perspective characterization. It can be described as a world of deprivation and exclusion that pertains to various forms of educational deprivation, impeding the full development of human potential.
Building on this perspective, this research aims to investigate the phenomenon of educational poverty among minors from migrant backgrounds, who «are particularly exposed to educational poverty due to more challenging family and economic conditions, bureaucratic obstacles, inequalities in accessing high school tracks, and early school dropout» (IDOS Research and Study Center & Institute of Political Studies S. Pio V, 2021, p. 98).
In particular, the investigation is guided by the following research question: 1) What differences can be identified between minors with and without a migratory background regarding the phenomenon of educational poverty? 2) What are the characteristics of the phenomenon of educational poverty among minors from migrant backgrounds? 3) How do some of the most relevant factors, such as socio-economic background, gender, and type of migratory background, influence the educational poverty of minors from migrant backgrounds?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe research employed a quantitative approach. Indeed, the extensive nature of the research object and the descriptive and explanatory nature of the investigation's objective suggested the use of this perspective, albeit with an awareness of the unique visual angle through which reality was observed, thus acknowledging the limitations of the acquired knowledge.
Specifically, the survey technique was chosen, involving the administration of a self-completed semi-structured questionnaire with group data collection to a statistically representative sample of 1761 students enrolled in the third year of lower secondary school in the academic year 2021/2022 in the municipality of Rome.
The questionnaire was designed to capture the basic sociographic properties, attitudes, and behaviors of the subjects. It consisted of six sections: 1) sociodemographic characteristics of the participants, including migratory background, gender, and age. 2) Participants' school experience, focusing on their relationship with studying, family expectations, students' emotional and relational experiences, and their academic path. 3) Future perspectives of students and their families regarding the path to be taken after lower secondary school and their career prospects. 4) Leisure time and engagement in educational or social activities, such as sports, extracurricular activities, and attendance of cultural places and events. 5) Socio-economic-cultural environment of the participants, with specific reference to the education level and occupational status of parents, and material conditions. 6) The neighborhood and the characteristics of the territory in which the students lived, with particular attention to the presence and attendance of educational and social facilities.
The questionnaire included both closed-ended questions (31), semi-closed-ended questions (16), and open-ended questions (9), totaling 56 questions.
Since the research specifically focused on students from migratory backgrounds, a stratified probability sampling design was chosen, allowing to increase the efficiency of the sample in the presence of areas of greater homogeneity (Cohen et al., 2007).
To implement this sampling design, it was deemed appropriate to divide the population of the schools into strata based on the variable 'percentage of students with non-Italian citizenship,' considered as a proxy for the percentage of students from migratory backgrounds for which official data are not available.
Data processing was carried out using IBM SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), version 28.0.1. Specifically, univariate analysis was conducted for each question to describe the studied phenomenon, and bivariate analysis aimed to study the relationship between each variable and the background.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsFrom the analysis of the responses, it emerges that students from migratory backgrounds generally experience school less favorably compared to their peers without migratory backgrounds, they have future expectations profoundly influenced by their migratory background, engage in educational or social activities less regularly, and have less access to certain educational opportunities due to the disadvantages often associated with their socio-economic-cultural environment and territorial context.
Therefore, it appears that students with migratory backgrounds not only often face more challenging academic paths on average but also have reduced access to non-formal and informal educational opportunities due to various socio-economic-cultural disadvantages. Consequently, it can be concluded that minors with migratory backgrounds are at a higher risk of educational poverty compared to their peers without migratory backgrounds.
In order to contribute to the development of prevention and intervention strategies against educational poverty among minors from migratory backgrounds, it is essential to adopt a multidimensional and intercultural approach (Fiorucci, 2017; Portera, 2019). This approach should acknowledge the complexity of the phenomenon at hand and aim to promote quality educational opportunities (Dewey, 1938), individual and community empowerment (Curti et al., 2020), awareness, and self-determination (Freire, 1968/2017), strengthening capabilities (Nussbaum, 2011; Sen, 1999), and fostering active and conscious citizenship. The ultimate goal is to promote the flourishing of human potential.
Aware of the complexity of the addressed issue and the limitations of the adopted approach, this study can make a significant contribution to understanding the phenomenon of educational poverty, particularly among minors with migratory backgrounds. By doing so, it enriches the existing scientific discourse and supports the development of new prevention and intervention measures against educational poverty.
ReferencesAgasisti, T., Longobardi, S., Prete, V., & Russo, F. (2021). The relevance of educational poverty in Europe: Determinants and remedies. Journal of Policy Modeling, 43, 692–709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2020.03.015
Allmendinger, J., & Leibfried, S. (2003). Education and the welfare state: the four worlds of competence production. Journal of European Social Policy, 13(1), 63-81.
Anand, S., & Sen, A. K. (1997). Concepts of Human Development and Poverty: A Multidimensional Perspective. Poverty and Human Development: Human Development Papers 1997, 1-20.
Battilocchi, G. L. (2020). Educational poverty in Italy: concepts, measures and policies. Central European Journal of Educational Research, 2(1), 1-10.
Botezat, A. (2016). Educational poverty. NESET II ad hoc question No. 5/2016. https://nesetweb.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/AHQ5_Educational-Poverty.pdf
Cohen L., Manion L., & Morrison K. (2007), Research Methods in Education. Routledge.
Curti, S., Fornari, S., & Moroni, E. (2020). Educating communities as a protection network against educational poverty. QTimes webmagazine, 12(4), 332-344.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. Macmillan Company.
European Council (2000). Lisbon European Council 23 And 24 March 2000. Presidency conclusions. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/lis1_en.htm
Fiorucci, M. (2017). Educatori e mediatori culturali: elementi per la formazione interculturale degli educatori. Pedagogia oggi, 15(2), 75-90.
Freire, P. (2017). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Penguin Books. (Original edition published in 1968)
General Assembly of the United Nations (2015). Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/70/1). https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_RES_70_1_E.pdf
IDOS Research and Study Center & Institute of Political Studies S. Pio V (2021). Osservatorio sulle migrazioni a Roma e nel Lazio: sedicesimo rapporto. IDOS Research and Study Center.
Lohmann, H., & Ferger, F. (2014). Educational Poverty in a Comparative Perspective: Theoretical and Empirical Implications [SFB 882 Working Paper Series n. 26]. DFG Research Center (SFB) 882 From Heterogeneities to Inequalities. https://pub.uni-bielefeld.de/download/2651911/2651912/SFB_882_WP_0026_Lohmann_Ferger.pdf
Nussbaum, M. C. (2011). Creating Capabilities: The Human Development Approach. Harvard University Press.
Portera, A. (2019). Dal multiculturalismo all’educazione e alle competenze (realmente) interculturali. Educazione Interculturale, 17(2), 1-10.
Save the Children (2014). La lampada di Aladino. L’indice di Save the Children per misurare le povertà educative e illuminare il futuro dei bambini in Italia. Save the Children Italia. https://s3.savethechildren.it/public/files/uploads/pubblicazioni/la-lampada-di-aladino.pdf
Sen, A. K. (1999). Development as Freedom. Oxford University Press.
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