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02 SES 12 A: Research Approaches and Themes in VET
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02. Vocational Education and Training (VETNET)
Paper VET System Formation as Condition for Educational Expansion: Using Historical Statistics to Explain the Case of Switzerland 1University of Zurich, Switzerland; 2Swiss Federal University of Vocational Education and Training, Switzerland Presenting Author:Previous research on the so called “educational expansion” has focused primarily on the expansion of general and higher education from the 1960s onwards. This development is associated with an increase in skilled workers and greater equality of opportunity in access to higher education (Hadjar & Becker 2006; Criblez 2001). Our (historical) perception of this “educational expansion” is thus based relatively one-sidedly on the development of the general education part of the education system. While an “expansive phase” of vocational education and training (VET) has been identified in the sense of an institutional differentiation also from the 1960s onwards (see, Gonon & Hägi 2019; Lundgreen & Schneunemann 2008), this raises the question of the role of VET in the overall picture of educational expansion, which is particularly important for education systems that have historically made a strong distinction between general and vocational education, as is the case of Germany, Switzerland and others. From a sociological perspective, the focus on VET lies in its possible “distraction effect” from higher education through the relative importance of VET in an overall education system context (Becker & Zangger 2013, p. 428). VET is therefore not described as an enabling factor for general educational expansion, but rather as a limiting or even a hindering one. This recognises that VET and general education have influenced each other in their development – through mutual competition for high-achieving students, through system differentiation-induced growth, and through the expansion of higher professional education (Criblez 2002). In our presentation, we argue that “educational expansion” was preceded by an expansion of VET, which created the conditions for the expansion of general education. We elaborate on this by focusing on the case of Switzerland, where a comprehensive dual VET system has been established within the period under study. Using quantitative data from the Swiss federal government's apprenticeship contract statistics, which have been systematically produced since the late interwar period, this presentation focuses on the role of the expansion of dual VET since the 1940s. This development of VET has hardly been taken into account so far. The data allow a description of the growth of VET in a differentiated manner, especially in terms of reginal, sectoral and gender-specific variations. In particular, we look at the development of participation in VET as well as the growth and composition of the supply of apprenticeship occupations. Within the framework of this development, not only the foundations for the establishment of a strong VET system in Switzerland, but also the adaptability and changeability of VET in a context of a shortage of skilled workers are reflected in this study. Research question: How can the educational expansion be described as a consequence of the establishment and consolidation of a VET system? By using this approach, we will show, that the VET system in Switzerland has initially developed as a reaction to social, economic, or technical challenges since the 1930s. Because of this development, not only the foundations for the establishment of a strong VET system in Switzerland were laid, which is characterized by a systemic adaptability in a context of a shortage of skilled workers until today. It also made the development of general education possible in the first place, which is still equated with educational expansion today. Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used This study evaluates the apprenticeship contract statistics of the Federal Office for Industry, Trade and Labour (FOITL) for the period between 1935 and 1969. The production of such apprenticeship contract statistics already represents a significant step towards system formation in VET. The production of data requires a certain degree of institutionalization – and at the same time this data supports further system formation. Therefore, this paper takes a look at the conditions of origin, the production and use of these data. These data were previously only partially accessible and in variously aggregated form via the FOITL's annual statistical reports. The data set used for the following analysis is based on a comprehensive inventory and reconstruction of the original statistical data collection forms for the period 1935 to 1969. The data is available in full each year for the following characteristics: (1) number of candidates taking final apprenticeship examinations, (2) number of certificates of competence issued, (3) number of newly concluded apprenticeship contracts, (3b) distribution of these apprenticeship contracts in relation to prospective apprenticeship leavers over the next four years and (4) total number of apprenticeship contracts. With stratification options according to training occupation, gender, occupational group or economic sector, canton and training form, detailed trends in dual VET can be shown and various questions answered. In addition to describing changes in the production of such data, growth processes in the education system can be traced in particular on the basis of changes in the relative participation of certain groups in certain segments of the education system. By calculating relative attendance or participation rates, demographic trends can be differentiated from the relative growth of individual school types (Köhler 1984). We first focus on the development of participation in dual VET throughout Switzerland and then look at economic sector differentiations. Particular attention is paid to gender-specific growth trends. This allows a description of the growth of VET in a differentiated manner. Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings As a first, general result from analysing the statistical data provided, it can be stated that VET has experienced a real boom since the very enactment of the first Federal VET Act in the early 1930s due to a coherent training regulation policy. While many apprenticeships were initially still based on cantonal law, a shift towards federally regulated apprenticeships as the dominant form can be observed. Since the 1940s, an increasing proportion of school-leavers were enrolled in initial VET programmes. The FOITL thus already calculated apprenticeship attendance rates during this period based on estimates of the Federal Statistical Office for the 15-17 age group. Reconstructing these estimates over the entire period under study reveals an overall increase in the enrolment of school-leavers in VET, adjusted for demographic factors, from 30% in 1940 to over 50% in 1969. While the strongest increase relative to population growth in the corresponding age group occurred in the 1940s, the 1950s and 1960s were still characterised by slighter but more steady growth. For boys, the overall growth occurred earlier and at a higher level than for girls, for whom the growth rate levelled off at the beginning of the 1960s. We can further show that the growth occurred not only in absolute numbers, but also in quality, that is the duration of the apprenticeship: Among girls, the three-year apprenticeship replaced the two-year apprenticeship as the dominant form of VET programme in the mid-1950s. This thus indicates that dual education determined a large part of the pathways into post-compulsory education already before the expansion of higher general education, thus setting the stage for higher education's often-described strong growth from the 1960s onwards. References Becker, R., & Zangger, C. (2013). Die Bildungsexpansion in der Schweiz und ihre Folgen. Eine empirische Analyse des Wandels der Bildungsbeteiligung und Bildungsungleichheiten mit den Daten der Schweizer Volkszählungen 1970, 1980, 1990 und 2000. Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, 65(3), 423–449. Criblez, L. (2001). Bildungsexpansion durch Systemdifferenzierung—Am Beispiel der Sekundarstufe II in den 1960er- und 1970er Jahren. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Bildungswissenschaften, 23, 95–118. Criblez, L. (2002). Gymnasium und Berufsschule: Zur Dynamisierung des Verhältnisses durch die Bildungsexpansion seit 1950. Traverse, 2, 29–40. Gonon, Ph. & Hägi, L. (2019). Expansion und Differenzierung der Berufsbildung in der Schweiz (1960-2010). bwp@ Berufs- und Wirtschaftspädagogik - online, 36. Hadjar, A., & Becker, R. (2006). Bildungsexpansion: Erwartete und unerwartete Folgen. In A. Hadjar & R. Becker (Hrsg.), Die Bildungsexpansion (S. 11–24). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag. Köhler, H. (1984). Schulbesuch, relativer, in: Martin Baethge u. Knut Nevermann (Hg.), Enzyklopädie Erziehungswissenschaft, Bd. Organisation, Recht und Ökonomie des Bildungswesens, Stuttgart (Handbuch und Lexikon der Erziehung 5). Lundgreen, P. & Scheunemann, J. (2008). Berufliche Schulen und Hochschulen; Helmut Köhler u. Peter Lundgreen, Allgemein bildende Schulen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. 1949-2010, Göttingen (Datenhandbuch zur deutschen Bildungsgeschichte, Bd. 8). 02. Vocational Education and Training (VETNET)
Paper Bildung of Apprentice Chefs in Professional Kitchen Settings VIA University College, Denmark Presenting Author:Based on data collected during six months of anthropological fieldwork, primarily in two professional restaurant kitchens, this presentation seeks to explore the notions of bildung and some forms of social aspects of education and personal development among apprentice chefs in a professional kitchen, as they undertake professional chef’s training. The presentation is a part of the publication strategy in the two-year Frascati-funded research project titled "Heard that, Chef!" conducted at the VIA Research Centre for Pedagogy and Education at VIA University College, Denmark through the years 2022-2023. Throughout this project, I engaged in anthropological fieldwork as an engaged, at times full participating anthropologist, while also undertaking the role of a novice apprentice chef, fulfilling the duties and responsibilities expected of a newcomer to the culinary apprenticeship context. My dual roles were of course announced and fully beknown to everyone I was with during the fieldwork. An earlier publication from the project (Frostholm, 2023), shows that as well as the practical craftmanship behind doing chef’s work, the newcomer apprentice chefs in the kitchens must also be socialised into the social fields of a professional kitchen. Or as John, a highly experienced and awarded chef at the culinary schools puts it: “Apprenticeship training is about passing on a culture. It can be rather frustrating for some students. Here they go from being boys to becoming adults, as they arrive at school Monday morning. It’s all about: how are you a chef?” To me, the talk of passing on a culture, and this seeming transition, from boyhood towards adulthood more than hints at a series of analyses on the notions of bildung, that seems at both times highly present and unspoken of within the everyday practices of the young apprentice chefs. With this presentation, I aim to shed some light on exactly that, through close-up registrations and thoroughly written through observations from the empirical data set of the project. The overall research question is: How do notions of Bildung appear within in the everyday practice of apprentice chefs in professional kitchen settings? Theoretical framework: The main theoretical inspiration of the idea of bildung, I find within the works of Danish scholar Lene Tanggaard, as she claims that, bildung impacts us in ways that imprint upon our existence – hence, it pertains to the entirety of an individual, as it encapsulates what holds significance to us throughout our lives. By grounding schools and educational systems in the principles of bildung, students are afforded the chance to mold the world autonomously (Tanggaard, 2021). To me, the impact of bildung that Tanggaard speaks abouts, is what comes of being exposed and influenced to all kinds of cultural and social interventions – as for example being undertaking professional training or partaking in educational practices. It the notions, belief-systems, ideas and thoughts – apparent as somewhat hidden from the individual itself, that will form the very thinking and the very actions of the person. As Tanggaard puts it: Bildung can be seen as a spark, and when it occurs, it ignites our thinking, our language, our body, our life, and ascribes meaning to it (Tanggaard, 2021). In that way bildung encompasses the entirety of an individual, involving self-awareness within the context of others and a larger framework. The concept of bildung arises from the unique experiences that shape our being. Bildung involves the discovery of the unknown and the realization of its significance. Certain interactions with more experienced chefs towards novice apprentices will undoubtedly resonate and hold to values, which I, with inspiration from Tanggaard, claim could be called bildung (Tanggaard, 2021). Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used Methods/methodology: For this project, I built an empirical object centered on two high-end Danish restaurants and a technical college's chef training program in Aarhus, Denmark. This is how fieldwork geography sometimes needs to be constructed, almost laboriously as, the anthropologist must immerse themselves in the world they are studying to enter it (Hastrup, 2003, p. 10-15; Hastrup, 2010, p. 57)). Using participant observation and full participation as methodological tools, I sought to become an engaged anthropologist, greatly influenced by Danish anthropologists Charlotte Baarts (2004) and Cathrine Hasse (2014). As a learning individual and anthropologist in the world being explored, I therefore took on the role of an apprentice chef as far as possible, during my time in the restaurants (Hasse, 2015). Diverging from conventional anthropological methodologies, my approach emphasised immersion, interaction, and active participation in the culinary environment, drawing from the principles of autoethnography where the distinction between participant and observer is often blurred or disregarded (Méndez, 2013). Furthermore, the project is underpinned by clear inductive and phenomenological influences within its theoretical framework (Hastrup, 2010). Phenomenology is characterized as both a philosophical orientation and a methodological approach, encompassing a style of inquiry and a mode of thought applicable across diverse domains, ranging from artistic endeavours to scientific disciplines. Within an anthropological frame phenomenology has accompanied and acted as scientific theoretical and philosophical inspiration and catalyst for decades (Atkinson & Hammersley, 2007: 2). In this project, adopting a phenomenological approach involves approaching fieldwork with a specific mindset and attitude aimed at understanding the perceptions of apprentice chefs. This entails a dedicated focus on attentive listening, temporarily setting aside preconceived assumptions, theories, and reflections commonly associated with apprenticeship learning or the culinary profession in general (Jacobsen, Tanggaard, & Brinkmann, 2015, 218). Here, the intersection of phenomenological philosophical principles and anthropological practice becomes apparent. My primary objective is thus to provide a descriptive account of observed phenomena, detailing the context in which actions occur, elucidating how individuals involved perceive and discuss their own actions as well as those of others, and examining the outcomes thereof (Atkinson & Hammersley, 2007: 7). Through this interpretivist practice, I acknowledge that the social world cannot be understood in terms of simple causal relationships or by bringing social events under the purview of general law. Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings Among the expected outcomes from these analyses, I aim to gain valuable insight into specific aspects or elements of bildung, that are prominent in the daily activities and interactions of apprentice chefs. To that my research aims to uncover how engagement with bildung influences the personal and professional development of apprentice chefs, including their attitudes, values, and skills. Through my empirical focus on everyday practices, the research may shed light on the social dynamics within professional kitchens and how notions of bildung shape relationships, hierarchies, and collaboration among experienced chefs and apprentices. In broader view I hope my findings may have some implications for culinary education programs, offering insights into how bildung can be integrated into curriculum design, teaching methodologies, and experiential learning opportunities for apprentice chefs. To that I wish to add that my research may contribute to broader discussions within bildung scholarship by providing empirical evidence of its relevance and application in contemporary vocational settings. Lastly I hope to add some methodological reflections on how to research bildung in a practice setting, as I wonder: How can one empirically study the concept of bildung? Firstly, I must reflect; does bildung exist, as something tangible and real? And how does one capture this phenomenon? Indeed, bildung exists both as a theoretical concept and as something tangible in various settings such as schools, educational institutions, and universities. Bildung does not seem immediately measurable as data; rather, it requires investigation into how it manifests, both theoretically and empirically (Wiberg, 2016, 69-70). Danish scholar, Grue Sørensen points out: "The critical criteria for determining the presence of bildung are uncertain and subject to significant debate" (Wiberg, 2016, 71). However, most interpretations of the concept revolve around the development of human personality. References Atkinson, P. & Hammersley, M., (2007). Ethnography: Principles in Practice. Taylor & Francis Ltd. Baarts, C. (2004). Viden og kunnen: En antropologisk analyse af sikkerhed på en byggeplads. København: Institut for Antropologi. Jacobsen, L, Tanggaard, L & Brinkmann, S. (2015). Fænomenologi. I: Kvalitative metoder : en grundbog (2. udgave.). Hans Reitzel. Frostholm, P. H. (2023). The practical craftmanship and social practices of apprentice chefs in a professional kitchen setting. Education in the North, 30(1), 3-18. Artikel 1. https://doi.org/10.26203/b42z-qx61 Hasse, C. (2014). Introducing the Engaged Anthropologist. In An Anthropology of Learning (pp. 1–27). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9606-4_1 Hastrup, K., (2003). Ind i verden: En grundbog i antropologisk metode. København: Hans Reitzels Forlag. Hastrup, K., (2010). Feltarbejde. In: S. Brinkmann and L. Tanggaard (ed.), Kvalitative metoder: En grundbog. København: Hans Reitzels Forlag. Méndez, M., (2013). Autoethnography as a research method: Advantages, limitations, and criticisms. Colomb. Appl. Linguist. J. [online]. 2013, vol.15, n.2. pp.279-287. <http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0123-46412013000200010&lng=en&nrm=iso>. ISSN 0123-4641. Tanggaard, L (2021) Dannelse former os som hele mennesker. In. Brinkmann, S., Rømer, T. A. & Tanggaard, L. (2021). Sidste chance: nye perspektiver på dannelse (1. udgave). Klim. Wiberg, M. (2016). Dannelsesbegrebets rolle som regulativ ide i teoretisk pædagogik – Dannelsesbegrebet og den pædagogiske forskning. Studier i pædagogisk filosofi 5(1). ojs.statsbiblioteket.dk/index.php/spf/article/view/23242/21749. 02. Vocational Education and Training (VETNET)
Poster Use of Senses and Tacit Knowledge in Vocational Education and Training OsloMet, Norway Presenting Author:Each vocation has a set of tools that are needed in performing the work. Some of the tools are physical, like wrenches, drills, and hammers in the technical vocations, and whisks, knives, and various kitchen utensils within the hotel, restaurant and catering vocations. All vocations use machines and tools of different kinds, and a skilled worker knows how to handle and use them, how and where to keep them, and what kind of service they need and when (Lindberg, 2003). Some tools are physical and other tools are non-physical and the use of the senses is a knowledge that is relevant in several professions. While the chef must be able to taste, it is required that other senses are used in other professions. In several professions, the sense of smell is central, for example when healthcare workers assess the state of health or the need for care. How students develop vocational knowledge is a rather under-researched topic in the context of vocational education and training. Vocational knowledge is perceived as the kind of knowledge required to perform in occupational practice (Heusdens, Baartman & Bruijn, 2019). The use of senses as a part of vocational knowledge has received little attention in previous research. In this study, we investigate how students, apprentices and newly qualified professionals identify current senses they use in their profession and their experiences of how such senses have been developed. The aim is to identify some of the tacit knowledge that can contribute to improving vocational training with a more proven focus on sensory development. The informants represent the cooking profession, the skin care profession and the healthcare profession and have been observed and interviewed about their own development of the profession-specific senses. We have particularly looked at the use of taste and smell in the cooking profession, the use of massage pressure and the aesthetic look in the skin care profession and the development of the clinical gaze (smell, look and touch) in the health worker profession. Sensing, through taste, smell, touch, sound, are all different forms of perception, and they all represent an embodied knowledge experienced through sensations. This is a tacit form of knowledge (Kollbotn, 2007). This study's theoretical grounding is based on Polanyi's (1983) perspective, where tacit knowledge implies that humans know more than what can be communicated verbally. “Tacit knowledge is knowledge that is not explicated” (Collins, 2010, p. 1). The fact that the knowledge is tacit does not mean that the knowledge cannot be explained or expressed linguistically. Tacit knowledge is not impossible to learn or communicate (Polanyi, 1983). Polanyi (1983) describes that there is knowledge that when it is embodied in a person, and when this embodiment has taken place, then the knowledge is silent. Sight, sound, touch, smell, taste are embodied practices used in different vocational practices. The research question for this project is therefore “How do young workers use their senses in professional practice and how do they experience the development of senses as a vocational knowledge?” Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used Methodologically, this is a qualitative study. By choosing a qualitative research design we seek to explore descriptions and perceptions of the participants' experiences and their perspective. The approach in this study is phenomenological hermeneutic (Bryman, 2016). We wanted to gain access to the participants personal understanding, seen from their inside view. In this way, we try to interpret experiences, behavior and action. The experience is based on interviews and observations of young students, apprentices and newly qualified professionals in the cookery, skin care and health professions in Norway. The inclusion criteria were that the participants were in practical work within their (future) profession, and thus had newly acquired experience with the development of senses in their work. The background for this criterion was that we wanted to investigate their experiences in order to incorporate this into their vocational education and training. The standard model for vocational education in Norway at upper secondary level follows a four-year model where the first two years are completed at school. The last two years are spent as an apprentice in an approved apprenticeship company. Over four weeks 12 second-year students in the cookery subject were observed in practical work in kitchen workshops. Four students and two newly qualified chefs were interviewed following the observations. The interviews lasted approximately one hour. 12 apprentices / newly qualified healthcare workers were interviewed individually, and each interview lasted up to 1 hour. In addition, three healthcare worker apprentices have been observed for some working days in home nursing. In the skin care subject, 12 skin care students have been observed treating clients in the skin care clinic at school. A focusgroup interview was also conducted with six newly qualified skin care professionals. In all interview situations, a semi-structured interview is the basis. A typical feature of humans is that they understand the world based on their own preconceptions (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2018). Preconceptions are implicit in all experience and cognition (Gadamer, 1975). The researchers in this study are all vocational teachers and are thus familiar with the field through their own teaching. In interviews and in observations, we understood the argumentation because it was a well-known terminology, and we thus spoke the "same language" as the participants. Our preconceptions animated the entire research process, from interview guide to analysis and conclusion, while at the same time we were aware of this possibility of influence and sought new perspectives. Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings The preliminary results show that the students in the three different professions studied coordinate their use of the senses in different ways. In all subjects, it turns out that the senses, as a professional exercise, must be adapted to users by using their hearing to listen to their wishes and needs in order to satisfy customers, patients and clients. Participants express that the involvement of users feedback is of great importance for both understanding of, and development of, the senses in all three subjects / professions mentioned. In the skincare profession, it is of great importance that an evaluation form is used after treatment, where the clients express their experiences of pressure, flow and the desired result of the treatment. In the culinary profession, guests provide continuous feedback on taste and experience. Apprentices in the healthcare profession experience learning a lot from the patients they visit, and they use different senses to see the whole person and their state of health. The practical knowledge is bodily, and it is embedded in bodily skills that are practiced in a familiarity with the environment, in this case guests, clients and patients. The study contributes to a research contribution that shows the experiences of students, apprentices and newly qualified professionals in a silent but embodied professional competence. Tacit and embodied professional competence should receive increased attention both in vocational training and in professional education. Our preliminary results show that feedback from guests, clients and patients in particular can be important contributors to training and developing the senses as part of an overall professional vocational knowledge. References Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods (5. utg.). Oxford University Press. Collins, H. M. (2010). Tacit and Explicit knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gadamer, H. G. (1975). Truth and method. Seabury Press. Heusdens, W., Baartman, L. & de Bruijn, E. (2019). Know Your Onions: An Exploration of How Students Develop Vocational Knowledge During Professional Performance. Scandinavian journal of educational research, 63(6), 839-852. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2018.1452291 Kollbotn, O. (2007). Kva er taus kunnskap: Ei teoretisk drøfting (Notat (Høgskulen i Sogn og Fjordane: online), Vol. 2/06.). Kvale, S. & Brinkmann, S. (2018). Det kvalitative forskningsintervju (3. utg.). Gyldendal akademisk. Lindberg, V. (2003). Vocational knowing and the content in vocational education. International Journal of Training Research, 1(2), 40-61. https://doi.org/10.5172/ijtr.1.2.40 Polanyi, M. (1983). The tacit dimension. Peter Smith. | ||