19. Ethnography
Paper
The Art of Classroom Observation: Challenges and Opportunities
Silje Hølland, Cecilie Pedersen Dalland, Louise Mifsud
OsloMet, Norway
Presenting Author: Hølland, Silje;
Dalland, Cecilie Pedersen
Observation as a research method is useful when collecting data about teaching and learning. Classroom observation as a method can be defined as watching with a specific focus, where the researcher attempts to reflect on and understand the situation at hand. There are different observation methods, ranging from note taking (field notes), structured observation, and video observation. Wragg (2011) argues that observation is well-suited when we want to describe different learning situations and activities that take place in school and kindergarten. While observation as a method is well-suited to answer the “hows, whys and what fors” about learning and teaching, there are several concerns with regards to observation as a method for understanding classrooms.
First, in classroom observations, the choice of what the researcher zooms in on can be overwhelming (Jordan & Henderson, 1995). Consequently, an issue that can come up is that of “pre-analysis” (Jordan & Henderson, 1995) or pre-selection (Zuengler et al., 1998). In using a video camera for observation purposes, this may lead to what Zuengler and colleagues (1998) describe as camera or analyst eyes. One way of circumventing this is through having multiple cameras, thereby allowing for a broader data collection. On the other hand, video data is in itself rich, and having several cameras can result in collecting data for the sake of collecting data, which can be viewed as unethical (Blikstad-Balas, 2017). As such the discussion rests on whether the loss of detail can be balanced with drawing on broader observation data.
Secondly, an issue that needs to be addressed is that of intrusiveness and inhibition (Mifsud, 2012). Questions that need to be raised are whether the presence of the researcher acts as a behaviour inhibitor, thus diluting the data. As such, observation studies can never be free from the presence of the observer as long as they are within the classroom (Silverman, 2001).
Thirdly, the researcher comes encumbered with their own understanding of teaching and learning, both from their role as researcher as well as from previous experience in the classroom. This in turn might lead to several challenges, such as researcher bias. However, first-hand knowledge of the classroom does not automatically mean that the etic (objective/outsider account) - emic (subjective/insider account) is no longer valid. An issue that can be raised is therefore whether researchers avoid relying solely on observation data (Gall et al., 2007).
This leads to our final concern, namely that of replicability and generalisability have been issues that have been debated with regards to classroom observations (Cohen et al., 2018; Dalland et al., 2023) The use of videos was often hailed as a way of dealing with issues of replicability and generalisation, as videos enable the viewing and reviewing of data (Derry et al., 2010). However, as Zuengler and colleagues (1998) points out, using videos in data collection does not necessarily counterbalance issues of pre-analysing the classroom situation. As such, there is the need to address these challenges and discuss different methods for working around these issues. While seminal works (for example Derry et al., 2010, have over 1500 citations) raise several issues regarding classroom observation, these are mainly over 20 years old, and the classrooms of today are not the same as classrooms were two decades ago, and many classrooms also have a myriad of tools that are used by pupils and teachers. Therefore, there is the need to revisit these issues. This paper raises the following questions:
- What possibilities and challenges arise in classroom observations?
- What are the implications of different techniques of classroom observations?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThis paper is based on a systematic review (Fink, 2019). Database searches were conducted in Academic Search Ultimate, Education Source, ERIC, Teacher Reference Center, using the search terms “classroom observation” NOT interview* AND school. Limiters were set for peer reviewed articles in English, published between 2014 and 2024. The initial search resulted in 1,052 articles (750 with duplicates removed). Articles that were not empirical or were not conducted in a school (compulsory school) were excluded: 26 articles were excluded as observation was not conducted in a school context. Included articles were screened by the authors for methodological challenges and opportunities encountered, as well as for different methods used for observation (field notes, structured observation, video observation, screen-observation etc.). Furthermore, the articles were screened for reflections on the chosen methodology.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsPreliminary findings indicate that conventional observation, in terms of either structured observation or observation captured through video is the methodology that is mostly applied. Furthermore, few of the articles employed observation as a sole methodology, relying on triangulation in terms of interviews, structured or semi-structured, and/or questionnaires. Our findings indicate that the use of interviews as supplementary data is used to circumvent the emic-etic debate. The use of video as a method is one that appears to be highly used and discussed in terms of reliability and validity. The use of body-cameras (such as body worn, or head worn) is also addressed. However, the use of pupils as co-researchers, who record and submit data is a twist in classroom observations that needs to be further explored.
ReferencesBlikstad-Balas, M. (2017). Key challenges of using video when investigating social practices in education: contextualization, magnification, and representation. International Journal of Research & Method in Education, 40(5), 511-523.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research Methods in Education (8 ed., Vol. 1). London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315456539
Dalland, C. P., Hølland, S., & Mifsud, L. (2023). Observasjon som metode: i lærerutdanningene (1. utgave. ed.). Fagbokforlaget.
Derry, S. J., Pea, R. D., Barron, B., Engle, R. A., Erickson, F., Goldman, R., Hall, R., Koschmann, T., Lemke, J. L., Sherin, M. G., & Sherin, B. L. (2010). Conducting Video Research in the Learning Sciences: Guidance on Selection, Analysis, Technology, and Ethics The journal of the learning sciences, 19(1), 3 - 53.
Fink, A. (2019). Conducting research literature reviews: From the internet to paper. Sage publications.
Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P., & Borg, W. R. (2007). Educational research: an introduction. Allyn and Bacon.
Jordan, B., & Henderson, A. (1995). Interaction analysis: Foundations and practice. The journal of the learning sciences, 4(1), 39-103. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls0401_2
Mifsud, L. (2012). Learning with mobile technologies: Perspectives on mediated actions in the classroom [Doctoral dissertation, University of Oslo, University of Oslo].
Silverman, D. (2001). Interpreting qualitative data : methods for analysing talk, text and interaction (2nd ed.). Sage.
Wragg, E. C. (2011). An introduction to classroom observation (Classic ed. ed.). Routledge.
Zuengler, J., Ford, C., & Fassnacht, C. (1998). Analyst Eyes and Camera Eyes: Theoretical and Technological Considerations in" Seeing" the Details of Classroom Interaction (CELA-R-2.40). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED427333.pdf
19. Ethnography
Paper
An Ethnographic Systems Methodology for Future Investigation of School Culture.
Stamatina Kioussi1, Anastassios Kodakos2
1University of the Aegean, Greece; 2University of the Aegean, Greece
Presenting Author: Kioussi, Stamatina
A vital component in the functioning of an educational organisation has been of particular interest to researchers worldwide seeking to define and investigate it in more detail. Individual components and definitions related to organizational culture have been extensively discussed for years. Despite the great interest in this phenomenon, school culture and its particular constituent has not yet been fully explored, let alone in the light of systems thinking.
In this paper I attempt by approaching the phenomenon in the light of Niklas Luhmann's theory, to highlight the factors that make it a complex, multidimensional emergent phenomenon as well as its dimensions, so as to further understand the strong relationships between them. In particular, I attempt to develop a qualitative ethnographic way of investigating the phenomenon in the light of Luhmannian theory, thus helping to explore the phenomenon, to evaluate it and subsequently to develop a resilient school culture as a process of complex organisational transition and systemic change. Therefore, the results of the study will be presented regarding one of the three factors influencing the formation of the emerging phenomenon.
Having in mind the importance of the decision premises, the decision – making conditions allow the double monitoring of decision – making processes at the level of observable behaviour and its products, and at the level of the conditions, which are potentially the cause of undesirable outcomes. They amplify intra – system uncertainties and put them in a form that can be further processed in the system.
According to Luhmann, these decisions create conditions for an infinite number of other decisions (Luhmann, 2018). Therefore, they create preconditions for future decisions and could be called meta-decisions, as they influence other decisions. Following Luhmann's idea, three dimensions of decision premises can be distinguished that need to be taken into account in organizational theory (Luhmann, 2018, p. 222)
- Programs
- Structures/procedures,
- Personnel
The highly complex nature of the phenomenon dictates the need to explore it in depth and to record both quantitative and qualitative data in the context in which the school culture is developed. Its specificity as unique to each school unit suggests the need for the direct involvement of the researcher and the investigation of the developments taking place within the system. An ethnographic research methodological approach is required to understand the goals, challenges, motivations and factors that fuel and contribute to its development. In ethnography, the researcher becomes a participatory member in the participants' environment in order to understand the goals, cultures, and challenges that emerge.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe adoption of mixed approaches significantly enhances research, making it more "holistic and interpretatively rich". It is no longer enough to ask "what works?" without being able to answer "why?", "where?" and 'how?'. Prominent thinkers of systems theory such as Luhmann (2000) have emphasised the need to shift from 'first-order observation' to that of 'second-order observation'.
A strictly structured 1st order participant observation sheet was therefore prepared to investigate the internal dimension of school culture, consisting of a short first part and a longer second part. The introductory note explains to the participants the purpose of the research, gives a brief definition of the phenomenon under investigation and the individual factors involved, and stresses the respect of all ethical and confidentiality principles. The first part asks for demographic data, such as gender, age, education, total educational and teaching service and the position of responsibility held. The observation sheet is requested to be completed by members of the Faculty Association including the Head and Subheads as a 1st order observation tool.
The second part is structured by a large number of findings categorized in three groups according to the factors that contribute to the formation of school culture based on the systems approach developed earlier. There are, therefore, findings in terms of programmatic decisions, personnel and the flow of communication channels. Observers are initially expected to assess on the basis of a seemingly quantitative approach factors that contribute to the formation of school culture. A six-point Likert scale is used in which the respondent is asked to indicate the strength of the finding. The scale is even-numbered to achieve categorization of the two extremes and to support Luhmann's systems approach to discrimination. At the same time, however, participant observers are asked to document their responses with field notes, providing qualitative data.
The findings are grouped together into subcategories. This categorisation forms the basis for structuring the 2nd order observation sheet.
As far as the 2nd order observation is concerned, the rationale of the methodology is based on the fact that each observation can be observed from a different perspective, which proves that such an observation is not a fact but a choice. Second-order observations open up possibilities of observation that are excluded in first-order observations, which observe reality as it appears. They can see that each observation is a function that produces distinctions in the medium of meaning, rather than revealing reality.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe multidimensional form of the phenomenon of school culture and its complex investigation has discouraged the development of research in recent years. The approach to the phenomenon by systems theories makes it even more complex and poses another challenge. However, it has constantly been acknowledged that school culture is a key factor in the self-development and self-improvement of educational organizations. Its qualitative dimension dictates a particularly careful systemic approach and its further investigation through the adoption of qualitative data collection techniques. The development of more than one different observation tools based on a systems approach to the term investigates the phenomenon qualitatively and systemically. They function as additional tools with the aim of achieving the improvement of an educational organization. Primarily, however, it can be evaluated as a first attempt in order to develop, in the course of the research, a complete method being used in the examination of school culture using a more systemic approach such as that of 2nd order participant observation. In this paper what will be presented are the results of the implementation of the research related to the first dimension of decision premises related to structures and procedures within a secondary school unit.
ReferencesArnold, R. and Wade, J., 2015. A Definition of Systems Thinking: A Systems Approach. Procedia Computer Science, 44, pp.669-678.
Bunyard, D. (2010) Niklas Luhmann: a systems view of education and school improvement. Educationalfutures, [online] Vol. 2(3). Available at: https://educationstudies.org.uk/?p=505
Cooren, F., Kuhn, T. R., Cornelissen, J. P., and Clark, T. (2011). ‘Communication, organizing, and organization: An overview and introduction to the Special Issue’. Organization Studies, 32 (9): 1149–1170.
DFID, (2018). DFID Education Policy: Get Children Learning. [online] Available at DFID Education policy: get children learning (publishing.service.gov.uk) [Accessed 20 August 2022].
Dominici, G. (2012). Why Does Systems Thinking Matter? Business Systems Review, 1(1), 1–2. doi:10.7350/bsr.a02.2012
Drepper, T. (2005). ‘Organization and Society’, in David Seidl and Kai Helge Becker (eds.), Niklas Luhmann and Organization Studies. Copenhagen: Liber & Copenhagen Business School Press.
Fend, H. (2006): Neue Theorie der Schule. Einführung in das Verstehen von Bildungssystemen. Wiesbaden: VS-Verlag.
Fuchs, C., and Hofkirchner, W. (2009). ‘Autopoiesis and Critical Social Systems Theory’, in Rodrigo Magalhães and Ron Sanchez (eds.), Autopoiesis in Organization Theory and Practice. Emerald: Bingley.
Hanley, P., Chambers, B., & Haslam, J. (2016). Reassessing RCTs as the ‘gold standard’: synergy not separatism in evaluation designs.International Journal Of Research &Amp; Method In Education,39(3), 287-298. doi: 10.1080/1743727x.2016.1138457
Helsper, W. (2007): Schulkulturen als symbolische Sinnordnungen und ihre Bedeutung für die pädagogische Professionalität. In: Helsper, W./Busse, S./Hummrich, M./Kramer, R.-T. (Hrsg.): Pädagogisches Professionalität in Organisationen. Wiesbaden: VS-Verlag, S. 115–149.
Hopper, M., & Stave, K. A. (2008). Assessing the Effectiveness of Systems Thinking Interventions in the Classroom. In The 26th International Conference of the System Dynamics Society (pp. 1–26). Athens, Greece.
Kopainsky, B., Alessi, S. M., & Davidsen, P. I. (2011). Measuring Knowledge Acquisition in Dynamic Decision Making Tasks. In The 29th International Conference of the System Dynamics Society (pp. 1–31). Washington, DC.
Luhmann, N. (1995): Kultur als historischer Begriff. In: Luhmann, N.: Gesellschaftsstruktur und Semantik. Band 4. Frankfurt a. M.; Suhrkamp, S. 31–55.
Luhmann, N. (2000): Organisation und Entscheidung. Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag.
Luhmann, N. (2000). Art As a Social System. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
OECD – ilibrary.org, (2022). Working with Change Systems approaches to public sector challenges 2017. [online] Available at https://www.oecd.org/media/oecdorg/satellitesites/opsi/contents/files/SystemsApproachesDraft.pdf [Accessed 20 August 2022].
19. Ethnography
Paper
What I Was Looking for Doesn’t Really Exist.
Carl Michael Karlsson
University of Gothenburg, Sweden
Presenting Author: Karlsson, Carl Michael
Swedish ‘first teachers’ interpretation of their assignments at a school with challenges
This paper describes parts of my ongoing PhD dissertation work where I study the policy enactment of the Swedish ‘first teacher’ (‘förstelärare’) reform in practice. The first teacher reform (Prop. 2012/13:136) completed ten years as a reform initiative in 2023. The purpose of the reform is to make the teaching profession more attractive and ensure good teaching for students. In the last two decades, a range of policy initiatives designed to establish new teacher roles. These new ‘expert’ teachers are called förstelärare in Sweden, lærerspesialist in Norway and tutoropettajat in Finland (Grimm, 2023; Lorentzen, 2021; Utbildningsstyrelsen, 2020). Despite great interest of these ‘expert’ teachers in Nordic countries, the research about these roles is still in the making. In a review of previous research, there are few relevant studies that explore what they do in their everyday school practice, specifically in schools with special challenges.
The aim of the paper is to explore how five selected first teachers at a primary school in Sweden interpret their assignment and how they describe their everyday work at school.
As a theoretical frame, I use Bernstein's (2000) discourse analytical concepts of classification and framing, as well as recognition- and realization rules.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedEmpirically, the study is based on recurrent interviews with five first teachers at a Swedish primary school (called Västhagaskolan), with special difficulties, considering the students' socio-economic background.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe preliminary results show two categories of first teachers' assignments, the teaching- and school development assignment, in the statements. The teaching assignment consists of planning (before and after) and teaching with their students. The school development assignment is primarily connected to the school and the municipality's systematic quality work, where the assignment involves driving and leading development and competence development with Västhagaskolan's staff. The first teacher assignment at Västhagaskolan lacks, to some extent, both a clear mandate from the principal and the conditions to carry out the assignment. The first teachers can only distinguish parts of the assignment and which requirements are set. In the study, it appears that the first teachers have difficulty distinguishing the assignments, since the assignment has many purposes and tasks with unclear boundaries. The first teachers have both individual tasks and common tasks in the group, which makes it difficult for the first teachers to understand what is required of them.
ReferencesReferences
Bernstein, B. (2000[1996]). Pedagogy, symbolic control and identity: theory, research, critique. (Rev. ed). Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Grimm, F. (2023). Ledarskap för lärares lärande: förstelärare som lärarledare. [Doktorsavhandling]. Umeå universitet.
Lorentzen, M. (2021). Like lærere leker best: om lærerspesialistenes rolle i skole og profesjonen. OsloMet avhandling (2021 nr. 32).
Pennanen, M., Taajamo, M., Risku, M., Rautapuro, J. & Häkkinen, P. (2021): Tutkimus perusopetuksen tutoropettajatoiminnasta ja sen vaikutuksista.
Utbildningsstyrelsen. Raportit ja selvitykset 2021:7.
Prop. 2012/13:136. Karriärvägar för lärare i skolväsendet m.m. Regeringskansliet: Stockholm.
Utbildningsstyrelsen (2020). Fakta express – Tutorlärarverksamheten i den grundläggande utbildningen i Finland 2017-2019. ISBN: 978-952-13-6733-5
|
