02. Vocational Education and Training (VETNET)
Paper
What Problem Should Skills Solve? Interrogating Theories of Change Underpinning Strategies and Interventions in Vocational Education and Skills in LMICs
Stephanie Allais, Carmel Marock
Centre for Researching Education and Labour, Wits University, South Africa
Presenting Author: Allais, Stephanie
The aim of this paper is to understand the ‘theory of change’ underlying interventions of development agencies and donors to support vocational education and training (VET) and skills development, in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The idea of a ‘theory of change’ is increasingly central to evaluative work, and offers a way of considering the policy/research interface. The first aim is to understand the extent to which, and ways in which, donors and development agencies support vocationalizing education and favour VET as an educational intervention. The second is to interrogate what problem they think VET is the answer to and how they believe that VET solves that problem (their theory of change). The term VET here is used to include formal vocational education and training programmes as well as other skills and work-readiness interventions.
In the research literature, skills and vocational education interventions seem to be under-theorized in low- and middle-income countries. There are two main theoretical approaches in the literature. The first starts from individuals, and is dominated by human capital theory. Human capital theory assumes that providing individuals with knowledge and skills makes them more productive, helping them to secure or improve their employment status or income generation capacity, and in turn making firms and organizations more productive, leading to increasing national prosperity and well-being (Becker 1993; Schultz 1961). The second approach is relational: it looks at skill formation as a factor in complex economic and social systems which shape and are shaped by the nature of skills (Busemeyer and Trampusch 2012; Martin 2017; Oliver, Yu, and Buchanan 2019; Thelen 2004). The most well-developed mid-level theory in this regard is Varieties of Capitalism. This theory has been influential because it showed that interactions between firms in five key spheres (industrial relations, skills, corporate governance, inter-firm relations, and employee relations) tend to cluster in patterns of institutional complementarities, which lead to and depend on either, on the one hand, strong apprenticeship-based vocational education systems or, on the other hand, weak vocational education systems and strong mass higher education systems (Hall and Soskice 2001). This was the starting point of a body of research looking systemically at skill formation systems. But Varieties of Capitalism is of little value in understanding LMICs. Its firm-centric starting point reduces its purchase in contexts of high levels of informality and unemployment and low levels of industrialization; and its focus on national patterns is very limited for countries that have less control over their national economies. There are attempts to understand skill formation systems in LMICs (Ashton et al. 2002; Maurer 2012; Sancak 2022; Bogliaccini and Madariaga 2020; Allais 2022), but there are no well-developed alternative relational theories for the nature of skill formation in these countries. This absence appears to lead to a default reversion to an implicit HCT approach in the skills interventions in LMICs.
Both of these theoretical approaches intersect with debates about development: here a key shift has been away from a focus on economic growth only to a focus on a range of social development indicators or a focus on what individuals value and therefore aspire to do (capabilities literature). But shift in how we measure and value development does not necessarily imply different paths to development, or indeed engaging with debates about paths to development. And at times they have led to palliative approaches to development which focus on a set of outcomes without any engagement with how change takes place and the imperative to address the nature and structure of economies (Reinert 2006).
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedWe reviewed publicly available strategies and reports focused on VET, skills, and education strategies from a selection of organizations: development banks, country donor and development organizations, multilateral organizations, and philanthropic organizations and foundations. We then conducted a small, targeted set of key informant interviews, with 10 individuals, from three Country Development Partners, one UN agency, three Development Banks, and one Foundation.
We focused on understanding the location of education in general and skills interventions in specific in the broader structure and work of the agency or organization in question; how important VET is in the broader areas of work; the relative focus on vocational versus general education, including interest in vocationalizing the secondary school curriculum; what problem they are trying to solve and how they see the intervention as solving that problem. We probed relationships between formal and informal work, and youth unemployment. As part of attempting to distil theories of change from descriptions of policies, approaches, and interventions, we also considered, where possible, what is evaluated and how evaluation takes place, or how success is understood. For document analysis we focused on strategic documents containing at least implicit theories of change that address VET and found that these typically reference youth and focus on new entrants. We also looked for documents related to worker education and education in general with a view to understanding how these addressed VET, and the extent to which the theories of change or strategies that are in place explain how these different components of the education and training system are described in relation to each other and their interconnected and inter-dependent nature.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsWe found that while some organizations have explicit theories of change—and generally multiple theories of change addressing different aspects of the overarching system—many are currently in the process of developing these theories of change. A few state that they do not have a theory of change but rather focus on the development of targets for different components of the system.
The main problem which organizations seek to address through VET is consistently identified in the strategy documents and our interviews is that of youth un- and underemployment, although a few organizations have a larger number of social and economic goals. There are then a set of assumptions made about the main problem, a key one being that skills deficits are a substantial cause of youth un- and underemployment. Flowing from this is the assumption that VET is an important area to intervene in order to solve the specific problem of the perceived skills mismatch (between supply and demand of skills), but also the recognition that VET is currently not able to solve this problem because it is dysfunctional in a range of ways. This leads to a range of interventions focused on fixing VET. We discuss four main theories of change present in the VET space, and how they are operationalized or not. We also discuss a number of tensions that emerge when reviewing the assumptions within these different theories of changes more closely, relating to which problems VET can assist with and the ways in which VET will assist to solve for the main problem of youth unemployment.
ReferencesAllais, Stephanie. 2022. ‘Structural Similarities of Formal Vocational Education Systems in Low and Middle Income Countries’. In International Handbook on Education Development in Asia-Pacific, edited by Phil Brown, Wing On Lee, Andy Green, and A. Lin Goodwin. Springer.
Ashton, David, Francis Green, Johnny Sung, and Donna James. 2002. ‘The Evolution of Education and Training Strategies in Singapore, Taiwan and S. Korea: A Development Model of Skill Formation’. Journal of Education and Work 15 (1): 5–30.
Becker, Gary. 1993. Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, With Special Reference to Education. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Bogliaccini, Juan A., and Aldo Madariaga. 2020. ‘Varieties of Skills Profiles in Latin America: A Reassessment of the Hierarchical Model of Capitalism’. Journal of Latin American Studies 52 (3): 601–31. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X20000322.
Busemeyer, Marius R., and Christine Trampusch. 2012. ‘The Comparative Political Economy of Collective Skill Formation’. In The Political Economy of Collective Skill Formation, edited by Marius R. Busemeyer and Christine Trampusch, 3–38. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Hall, Peter A., and David Soskice, eds. 2001. Varieties of Capitalism: The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Martin, Cathie Jo. 2017. ‘Skill Builders and the Evolution of National Vocational Training Systems’. In The Oxford Handbook of Skills and Training, edited by Chris Warhurst, Ken Mayhew, David Finegold, and John Buchanan, 36–53. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Maurer, Markus. 2012. ‘Structural Elaboration of Technical and Vocational Education and Training Systems in Developing Countries: The Cases of Sri Lanka and Bangladesh’. Comparative Education 48 (4): 487–503.
Oliver, Damien, Serena Yu, and John Buchanan. 2019. ‘Political Economy of Vocational Education and Training’. In The Wiley Handbook of Vocational Education and Training, edited by David Guile and Lorna Unwin, 115–36. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell.
Reinert, Erik S. 2006. ‘Development and Social Goals: Balancing Aid and Development to Prevent “Welfare Colonialism”’. DESA Working Paper No 14. New York: Economic and Social Affairs, UN_DESA.
Sancak, Merve. 2022. Global Production, National Institutions, and Skill Formation: The Political Economy of Training and Employment in Auto Parts Suppliers from Mexico and Turkey. First edition. Oxford, United Kingdom ; New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Schultz, Theodore. 1961. ‘Investment in Human Capital’. The American Economic Review LI (1): 1–17.
Thelen, Kathleen. 2004. How Institutions Evolve: The Political Economy of Skills in Germany, Britain, the United States, and Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
02. Vocational Education and Training (VETNET)
Paper
Information Advice and Guidance for those Young People Who Choose a Vocational Path: a Cross National Comparison
Andrea Laczik1, Christopher Winch2, Sharon Gewitz2, Meg Maguire2, Sait Bayrakdar2, Rana Khazbak2
1Edge Foundation, United Kingdom; 2King's College London
Presenting Author: Laczik, Andrea
Young people experience several transition points during their educational journey before securing a job. These include among others school-to-college, school-to-university, school-to-work transitions. It is therefore very important that they make an informed decision that is best suited to their interests, ability and career ambitions. Hence impartial information, advice and guidance (IAG) in relation to their post-16 choices is essential (Fuller and MacFadyen, 2012). Some young people have a more linear progression to university taking a general route, while others might enter and exit various programmes before they find a suitable course. Vocational routes and ways into further education colleges are often considered complex and unstable, and are impacted by frequent policy reforms (Hupkau,et al., 2017). In England, about 50 percent of young people do not pursue university studies, but mostly engage with vocational training. In March 2023, there were also about 11 percent of young people who were not in education, employment or training (NEET). The combination of the maze of the vocational education and training (VET) system, and the proportion of young people taking a VET path makes information, advice and guidance and generally holistic support of young people a must (Maragkou, 2020). To ensure successful and smooth transitions for all young people and to help them make an informed decision about their future, Careers Education, Information, Advice and Guidance (CEIAG) can play a decisive role. IAG should not only entail information about opportunities in relation to education and training, but IAG of high quality also should be based on, and linked to labour market intelligence (LMI). In an ideal world career advisors would encompass and draw on all this information, and make it available in a tailored, selective manner when advising young people. As recommended by Barnes and Bimrose (2021), among other things there is a clear need to improve LMI in relation to VET: it has to be simplified, it has to be relevant for young people, and it has to be built into the preparation and continuing professional development of ‘intermediaries’ (teachers and career practitioner). Broadly, this is what we plan to unpack in this paper.
This paper draws on findings from a 5-year Economic and Social Research Council funded project, Young Lives, Young Futures which is investigating how England’s vocational education and training (VET) system can better support the school-to-work transitions of the 50 per cent of young people who do not go to university. Specifically, it draws on insights into CEIAG provided by interviews and discussions with researchers, practitioners and policy makers from six European countries, France, Germany, Norway, Scotland, Sweden and Switzerland, which are being undertaken to help inform evaluative readings of transition processes and systems in England in the light of lessons from other national contexts. All these countries have developed industrial and post-industrial economies and have well-established VET systems. However, they vary in terms of their economic and welfare systems and ideologies, involvement of social partners, approaches to VET provision, careers education, information and guidance, and rates of youth unemployment.
We aimed to answer the following question: How do the guidance systems in the chosen countries help young people make school-to-work, school-to-VET and VET-to-work transitions?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe aim of this paper is to identify and provide insights from national CEIAG systems as they relate to provision made for those young people who do not intend to enter university. Although generally speaking, CEIAG provision is for all young people, we are particularly interested in the provision made for those not taking a university route. Part of our research has entailed looking at national CEIAG systems to see if the quality of provision for those intending to enter the workplace and/or a VET differed significantly from what was available for those intending to go to university.
Six countries, France, Germany, Norway, Scotland, Sweden and Switzerland were purposefully chosen demonstrating similarities and differences with each other and with England offering a base for comparing and contrasting approaches, processes and systems. All these countries have developed industrial and post-industrial economies and have well-established VET systems. However, they vary in terms of their economic and welfare systems and ideologies, involvement of social partners, approaches to VET provision, careers education, information and guidance, and rates of youth unemployment.
We have interviewed 16 experts between September 2022 and December 2022. These consisted of: 1 French, 3 German, 1 Norwegian, 1 Scottish, 2 Swedish and 2 Swiss experts and 6 experts from England (4 with considerable international knowledge). We interviewed a combination of researchers, practitioners and policy makers. Interviews lasted between 60 and 70 minutes and were transcribed verbatim.
In January 2023 we also ran a two-hour workshop with experts contributing short presentations followed by small group discussion. Alongside the interviews, this paper draws on data from this workshop.
Our data does not offer a comprehensive overview of the national systems in the six counties. However, through analysis of the data, we have identified common themes.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsWe will discuss six themes:
1. The balance between centralisation and decentralisation of CEIAG provision.
2. The quality of provision for vulnerable groups, including SEND, NEET, migrants and low-achievers at school.
3. The quality and availability of labour market intelligence at different levels of national systems.
4. The architecture of and interaction between different levels and parts of the national CEIAG system (eg school/out of school; adult/young person)
5. The quality of CEIAG for those intending to embark on and those on a VET rather than higher education route.
6. Qualifications and professional preparation for CEIAG professional.
Examples of findings include there being some evidence to suggest that well-resourced CEIAG, organised at the national level, but with regional and local presences, is a contributory factor to enabling young people to access VET and employment, but not a sufficient condition for doing so. None of those countries that we examined which had such systems had solved problems of transition, which in many cases remain complex. This remains particularly true for vulnerable groups of young people. Good CEIAG support for vulnerable groups is the biggest challenge facing the systems of all the countries in the study, even those with relatively low levels of youth unemployment. There are major problems facing CEIAG when catering for these groups. These include identifying, then tracking and supporting members of vulnerable groups, putting in place provision that successfully caters for these groups and ensuring that they can exit into a VET programme without having to undergo more than one cycle of support within a transition system. Finally, supporting those who cannot access a Level 3 or even Level 2 VET programme into meaningful employment and, possibly Continuing VET (CVET). This paper will discuss the six themes and reflect on their implications for IAG and VET in England.
ReferencesFuller, C., & MacFadyen, T. (2012). “What with your grades? ’Students’ motivation for and experiences of vocational courses in further education”. Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 64(1), 87-101.
Hupkau, C., McNally, S., Ruiz-Valenzuela, J., & Ventura, G. (2017). Post-compulsory education in England: choices and implications. National Institute Economic Review, 240(1), R42-R57.
Maragkou, K. (2020). Socio-economic inequality and academic match among post-compulsory education participants. Economics of Education Review, 79, 102060.
Barnes, S-A., and Bimrose, J. (2021). Labour market information and its use to inform career guidance of young people. An overview of the Labour Market Information System for Careers Guidance in England. Coventry: Institute for Employment Research, University of Warwick. Retrieved from: https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/ier/research/lmicareerguidanceofyoungpeople/ier_gatsby_lmis_landscape_2021_final.pdf
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