Conference Agenda

The digitalisation of education offers transformative potential, enriching teaching practices and broadening instructional possibilities within schools. However, this shift also introduces a set of complex challenges that impact both pedagogy and curriculum. Within this evolving digital landscape, which includes domains such as artificial intelligence, data management, cloud computing, and sustainable technologies (González-Pérez & Ramírez-Montoya, 2022), teachers are faced with complex considerations, including classroom management, assessment, ethical concerns, and the integration of digital technologies. A key area of focus within digital transformation is the development of computational thinking through programming and educational robotics, targeting 21st-century skills such as collaboration, critical- and ethical thinking (González-Pérez & Ramírez-Montoya, 2022; Ye et al., 2022).

In response to these educational imperatives, programming has been integrated into the school curricula of several countries. While some countries have introduced programming as a separate subject or as a subsection of Mathematics, others like Finland and Norway have embraced a cross-curricular approach, incorporating programming into diverse subjects such as Art and Design, Music, and Science, in addition to Mathematics.

Based on the interdisciplinary landscape of programming education, its research intersects with various academic disciplines and pedagogical approaches. In order to shed light on how these interdisciplinary perspectives are brought together in current K-12 programming research, as well as to gauge the scope and quality of evidence syntheses that have been undertaken previously, as well as identify research gaps, a meta scoping review (Booth et al., 2022) was undertaken. The overarching research question guiding this study is:

What is the nature and scope of evidence synthesis on programming and robotics in primary and secondary education?

To provide a comprehensive answer to this main research question, the study is broken down into the following sub-questions:

1. What types of evidence syntheses have been conducted, and in what years were they published?
2. In which journals are these evidence syntheses published?
3. What is the geographical distribution of the authors, their affiliations and disciplines?
4. To what extent is there collaboration in the systematic reviews on programming in primary and secondary education?
5. What is the quality of K-12 programming evidence synthesis?
6. What overlap and gaps exist among research questions across evidence syntheses in terms of topic or subject area?
7. What benefits and challenges of programming in K-12 education have been identified?

By conducting this meta scoping review, the study aims to lay a foundational groundwork for future primary and secondary research in the domain of programming education.

Dialogic education has promising potential for reducing polarization, widely seen as a threat to democracy (Wegerif, 2022; Parker, 2023). Engaging students in an internally persuasive discourse (IPD) (Bakhtin, 1981) means creating a space where students examine their vested truth in light of critique and alternatives presented by a different, conflicting Other (Matusov, 2009). Successful implementation of IPD increases students’ polyphony, manifested in legitimizing the right of other opinions (other voices) to exist and engaging in a dialogic relationship with this voice (Parker, 2023). It could bring democracy to life inside the school (Apple & Beane, 2007; Gilbert, 2020).

In previous work, we developed and successfully implemented a pedagogical model aimed at IPD. Our design relied on the replete evidence in the literature that a dyadic interaction — students with textual, inanimate representations of the Other, conflicting voice — is less likely to generate IPD because students’ reading is mediated by the mechanism of appropriation/resistance (Wertsch, 1998). Namely, students tend to unquestionably accept representations in line with their in-group voice and ignore or reject (with ostensive argumentative efforts) the Other voice (Brand et al., 2023).

We thus structured a triadic interaction— students from both sides of the conflict and text. The hypothesis was that the animated Other is flexible and attuned to one’s voice, thereby metaphorically “amplifying” the text. Nonetheless, meticulous scaffolding is required to (a) prevent the deterioration of hot discussions into mere disputes, (b) enable a safe space to argue and criticize, and (c) encourage reasoning and re-examination.

In one successful implementation of this model, Israeli post-secondary students, Jewish and Arabs, e-investigated an event from the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. As expected, the discussions were disputatious. Nonetheless, they were fruitful. While students did not abandon their in-group narratives, their voices became polyphonic, that is, enriched by the Other voice. This was expressed, for example, in moving from a zero-sum viewpoint on historical events and employing moral judgment to a portrayal of an entangled relationship between the agents and assuming (some) accountability towards in-group historical agents (Ben-David Kolikant & Pollack, 2015).

Intuitively, chatbots based on large-language models (LLMs) (e.g., ChatGPT, Llama, Bard) can be used to scale dialogical education because, owing to their nature, they could enable, provoke, and facilitate a productive dyadic interaction—student and text. Specifically, the text that a chatbot provides is not inanimate, it “talks” and hence can dynamically attune the responses to the interlocutor. Moreover, it can introduce students to a myriad of voices and ideas attuned to the unfolding conversation.

The use of chatbots also lessens the need for careful structuring of the encounter, aimed at preventing “explosions”, students being offended or stressed by the Other, which may lead to the opposite result, a boost to polarization. Since chatbots are not human, there is no fear they would be offended by interlocutors. Additionally, students can feel safe to utter their voices and critique, ask for clarifications, experience uttering the Other’s voice, and admit that they changed their minds or realized there is merit in the other’s viewpoint without feeling that they betrayed themselves and/or their in-group.

To gain insights into the potential and limitation of LLMs to scale dialogic education, in particular the engagement of students in IPD, we fine-tuned an LLM with a corpus of discussions in which IPD was evident. Then, we conducted discussions on controversial topics with the chatbot and analyzed its discursive moves. Our focus was on how, if at all, the chatbot provokes and enables its interlocutors to revisit their ideas.

As one of the main insights working with Chatbots as teacher or instructor is their proper and reflected use. Specifically, one first and decisive step is a thoroughly created prompt. A prompt in generative AI is a specific way of interaction between a human and a large language model that let the model generate the intended output, in this study the constructive feedback for the learner.

One can almost say that this is already a research result, the prompts’ importance, starting to work and apply chatbots systematically and for educational purposes. This is not different from the old proverb that “we reap what we sow” one need to thoroughly consider how to design a prompt. Whereas chat bot applications for learners are implemented and under research for instance in Learning Management Systems (Lee et al., 2020) to assist student learning (Edubots, n.d.), applications for teachers specifically on assessment are less in focus with some exceptions. Just 6 % of the Edubots support assessment activities (Okonkwo & Ade-Ibijola, 2021, p.5-6). Therefore, the prompts and approaches researched here should support teacher’s feedback work on student learning. Beside different types of prompts to address different purposes and styles of answers, one need to respect principles which one can find in publications developed by the experience of language modelers for AI bots (Atlas, 2023). This will have influenced the approaches developed and presented in this paper.

These principles are described differently in the literature but as summarized here one can find the following basic handling principles:

• choose the words carefully

• define the conversation’s purpose

• define the conversations focus

• specify and be concise

• provide context

Other recommendations are to include the following types of components (Research project at our university, n.d.):

• role (the expertise or the perspective which should be taken)

• task (the specific task, objective your bot should conduct)

• format (intended presentation format for the bot answer)

Ekin (2023, p.4) is presenting five factors influencing the so-called “engineering” of prompts which in away include the handling principles and the types of components but add a bigger picture on the understanding of the technology itself used.

User intent: Understand the user’s goal and desired output. This helps in crafting a prompt that aligns with the user’s expectations.

Model understanding: Familiarize yourself with the strengths and limitations of ChatGPT. This knowledge assists in designing prompts that exploit the model’s capabilities while mitigating its weaknesses. Keep in mind that even state-of-the-art models like ChatGPT may struggle with certain tasks or produce incorrect information.

Domain specificity: When dealing with a specialized domain, consider using domain-specific vocabulary or context to guide the model towards the desired response. Providing additional context or examples can help the model generate more accurate and relevant outputs.

Clarity and specificity: Ensure the prompt is clear and specific to avoid ambiguity or confusion, which can result in suboptimal responses. Ambiguity can arise from unclear instructions, vague questions, or insufficient context.

Constraints: Determine if any constraints (e.g., response length or format) are necessary to achieve the desired output. Explicitly specifying constraints can help guide the model towards generating responses that meet specific requirements, such as character limits or structured formats.

Independent which kind of factors to consider, basic principles to follow or components to apply there is a need to make a choice to be able to use the bots purposeful and efficient. One can find literature and training programs for the so-called “prompt engineering” (see Ekin, 2023). The research question is: How will the use of different prompt-types influence the support for teachers’ writing feedback?

This conference presentation aims to contribute to the further development of the implementation and research of Virtual Reality (VR) practices in higher education. The study's impetus is the knowledge gap of the teacher-educator perspective in Virtual Reality practices. Recent review studies regarding VR practices in teacher education indicate that researchers have focused on identifying factors and prerequisites to successfully implement VR in higher education, such as the right technological equipment and sufficient ICT support (Amhag et al., 2019; Kavanagh et al., 2017; McGarr, 2020; Ungar & Baruch, 2016). In addition, the review studies reported measurements of student experiences with VR applications and their effects on students’ skills and knowledge. Interestingly, none of the studies included in the review studies addressed or covered the perspective of the teacher-educator. A possible explanation for the lack of the teacher-educator perspective could be that the VR applications were delivered by the initiators and designers of the VR application (Pomerantz, 2019), instead of an ecologically valid setting of a teacher-educator implementing the VR application.

To strengthen the implementation of VR practices in higher education, we argue that the perspectives and experiences of teacher-educators should be included in the evaluation of VR curriculum implementations. This is a perspective that is missing in contemporary literature.

To address this knowledge gap and include the teacher-educator perspective, the current study follows the implementation of the VR-kindergarten curriculum “Keeping Order in a Virtual Reality Kindergarten Classroom” (Mouw & Fokkens-Bruinsma, 2022) at three Dutch universities of applied sciences. The VR-kindergarten curriculum is designed by two educational scientists who teach at teacher-training programs to support pre-service teachers in developing kindergarten-specific classroom management strategies by offering a realistic environment in which students actively participate and experiment with a variety of specific classroom management strategies during a circle time activity (Mouw & Fokkens-Bruinsma, 2022). The VR application is built upon the work of Lugrin et al. (2016). In the Netherlands, kindergarten is part of compulsory education (pupils aged: 4-6 years). Therefore, all pre-service teachers are required to be able to teach in kindergarten.

The VR-kindergarten curriculum was previously implemented at a university. In the current study, it is implemented in three universities of applied sciences. The aim of our study is twofold: 1) We focus on describing what the perspectives of teacher-educators are regarding the implementation of a VR-kindergarten curriculum into the pre-existing teacher-education curriculum and 2) identifying which knowledge and skills are required by teacher-educators to (successfully) implement the VR-kindergarten curriculum. We did this by collecting data via questionnaires and individual, semi-structured interviews.

The objective of this study is to investigate the conceptual development of pre-service teachers regarding diffusion in both liquids and gases through a Modeling-Based Learning (MBL) approach. The focus was on examining whether teachers' involvement in modeling activities related to ink diffusion would facilitate the development of their ideas about how evaporated lavender oil diffuses in a classroom environment (gas diffusion). The research questions that the study aimed to address were: (1) What are pre-service teachers' ideas about diffusion in gas and liquid environments, and do these ideas differ based on the expressed state of matter? (2) How does their mechanistic reasoning about diffusion evolve as they transition between gas-liquid-gas phenomena?

Modeling, the process of constructing a conceptual representation of a phenomenon under study, is fundamental to scientific endeavors and plays a central role in science teaching and learning (Günther et al., 2019). To build an internal mental model of a scientific phenomenon, learners must create external representations or artifacts of the phenomenon. Understanding the underlying mechanism of a phenomenon is linked to mechanistic reasoning, defined as "reasoning systematically through the underlying factors and relationships that give rise to a phenomenon" (Krist et al., 2019, p. 161). This is particularly crucial for phenomena involving processes at the microscopic level, as mechanistic reasoning goes beyond observable patterns, revealing the regularities behind empirical observations. Consequently, engaging learners in modeling diffusion is proposed as a productive way to facilitate the development of their understanding of the underlying mechanism governing the process.

Nineteen participants were engaged in a specially crafted MBL unit where they constructed various models to explain diffusion in gases and liquids. Data sources encompassed pre- and post-test paper-and-pencil models for gas diffusion, as well as initial and revised models for liquid diffusion, along with subsequent computer-based models. Data analysis employed open coding methods and a mechanistic reasoning coding scheme derived from existing literature.

Three crucial findings emerged: Firstly, pre-service teachers expressed non-canonical ideas about fluid diffusion, with only a minority of these ideas not being specific to the state of matter. Secondly, there was an advancement in teachers' mechanistic reasoning from their initial to final models. Lastly, the computer-based modeling environment acted as a facilitator for their mechanistic reasoning, aiding in their explanations of how diffusion occurs in liquids. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to MBL's potential to support pre-service teachers in understanding microscopic phenomena.

The digital age has been upon us since 1989 (Stengel, 2017). Still, adapting to it is a continuous challenge across European countries (European Commission, 2024). In Germany, about one-third of 8^th graders in Germany only show rudimentary ICT competence levels (Eickelmann et al., 2019). German pre-service teachers hold less favorable attitudes than students from other programs (Behrens et al., 2017) and most pre-service teachers do not meet the basic requirements of ICT competence levels defined by experts (Senkbeil et al., 2020). Even though respective German experts largely share a consensus about the importance of empowering teachers professionally with digital competencies (vbw, 2017; SWK, 2022), 20% of higher education curricula do not consider digital competencies (Monitor Lehrerbildung, 2022a). Therefore, action is needed to improve digital attitudes and competencies in pre-service teachers.

As a transitory means to implement relevant and innovative objectives and content areas in higher education curricula for pre-service teachers in Germany, extra-credit courses are offered as additionally certified qualification opportunities (Monitor Lehrerbildung, 2022b). One of those opportunities is subject to this contribution. It was developed as an intervention in the context of a joint research project, which was funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) in Germany and addresses competencies based on the European DigCompEdu framework (Redecker & Punie, 2017). It consists of a basic and three compulsory elective modules (Vocational Orientation, Democracy Education, Education for Sustainable Development). The basic module consists of ten according elements, e.g., basic technological knowledge (TK), technological-content-knowledge (TCK), technological-pedagogical-knowledge (TPK), legal implications etc.

Several studies have been made about the effects of different interventions based on the DigCompEdu (see Haşlaman et al., 2023). However, there are only few that address a longitudinal perspective and none that consider test-based rather than self-reported indicators for competencies. The complementation of self-reported by test-based indicators to measure competence is important, e.g, because self-reported and test-based competencies only share a weak link (Drummond & Sweeney, 2017; Lachner et al., 2019) and especially low-performing students tend to overestimate themselves (Max et al., 2022). In summary, the main research question is: How does the intervention impact pre-service teacher’s digital attitudes, self-reported and test-based competencies? The main objective is to discuss the results and share insights that might inspire similar projects to optimize their process and results.

This paper reports on an action research project on the development of advanced digital literacies with secondary school students in England, taking a multi-generational and agentic approach for that purpose.

The project is found on the observation that policy discourses signalling a shortage of digitally skilled workforces has provided a useful, yet narrow perspective of the knowledge students require to thrive in an ever-changing digital environment. While skills and literacies should not be used interchangeably, the emphasis on technical digital ability tends to overshadow the purpose of engaging more deeply with the complexities of digital cultures (Jenkins, 2019); complexities that require an appreciation for the logic of the digital world and the practices that prevail therein (Costa et al., 2018). This translates into the acquisition of digital cultural knowledge (Costa and Li, 2023), key to the safe and ethical navigation of digital environments. Much like Lareau (see 2015) we conceptualise this form of knowledge as one benefiting from ‘cultural guides’ who can help in the learning of ‘the rules of the game’. To do so, a collaboration with university students was developed to ensure digital literacy learning of school students occurred with the support of ‘fresh contacts’ (Mannheim, 1928/2017) who are bound by cultural rather than biological rhythms. This proposal is in keeping with contestations of a technical-instrumentalist curriculum model (Moore and Young, 2001) and in favour of a humanistic approach, one that privileges learning autonomy (Freire, 2001).

Digital literacies in schools have often taken on a risk perspective approach, supported by practices of surveillance and prevention (see Reilly, 2021). While preventative measures in the context of schools are hard to contest in light of increased perceptions of digital harm and schools’ attentiveness to students’ welfare and wellbeing, such approaches tend to be less effective in helping students deal with digital issues they may face in reflective way. In other words, while digital preventative measures offer more certainties about the practices to follow and those to avoid, it is less focused on exploring the unpredictability of digital practices as reflective of a changing digital environment.

In this vein, focusing less on the “dos” and “don’t” of digital practices and more on the experiences and modes of participation that young people tend to develop online, this project we will discuss via this presentation has attempted to find ways to support young people in dealing with the uncertainties of the digital world while hopeful of the benefits informed, deliberative and reflective practices may bring to young people’s digital lives. The project takes on a stance of ethics and agency, placing students at the centre of such discussions and practices while supported by ‘meaningful others’ who more than being close in age are close in experience and perspective.

Since some time now, it has been feasible to perceive that the relationship between young people and digital technologies is extremely close in terms of frequency and variety of use. Nowadays, young people, especially university students, use digital technologies with high frequency, which can have different types of impacts (Álvarez-Ferrandiz et al., 2023). In some cases, it may lead to academic, entertainment and social uses (Cerda et al., 2018), while in others, it may result in worrying practices, especially those related to problematic use of social networks (Romero-Rodriguez et al., 2020) and smartphone use (Roig-Vila et al., 2020). Therefore, analyzing the relationship between young people and digital technologies should be a matter of interest in the academic world.

While this is relevant for university students, it becomes even more critical for student teachers because of their role modeling (Urra et al., 2020). It means that a teacher must not only generate teaching practices based on the curricular content defined by the school system but also develop personal practices considered exemplary by society, which is consciously or unconsciously observed in a vicarial way by their students (Cheung, 2020). Among all types of subjects, physical education is one that has greater relevance due to its practical character.

It would be expected that physical education teachers can be a good example of the value of practices they promote. Therefore, these teachers should stimulate and experience real entertainment practices, prioritizing them over the virtual ones available nowadays in the pocket of their students (smartphone). Despite this, Menescardi et al. (2021) conclude that the use of digital technologies in physical education is still basic. While this makes sense, due to the lockdown caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, these habits were modified, even for university students in physical education (Etchevers et al., 2022). Consequently, digital entertainment practices have gained greater acceptance among young people, sometimes being preferred over real practices (Flores et al., 2020). Despite the relevance of the research topic and its implications, there is limited literature regarding the specific understanding of this phenomenon.

On the other hand, autonomous use with entertainment purposes of technologies allows the development of various digital competences. The European Framework for Digital Competences (DIGCOMP) provides a detailed description of the essential areas that citizens should have (Carretero et al., 2017; Ferrari, 2013). In these terms, educational institutions must provide citizens with the necessary competences to face new professional challenges. Although it could be thought that the acquisition of these skills is due to formal training processes, many of them can be acquired autonomously through the interaction with various digital devices, considering needs and interests of the users and variables associated with them (Cerda et al., 2022b). According to this context, it is relevant to deep in the understanding of this phenomenon.

Considering this background, this research had two objectives. First, describe the access and use to devices and applications that are most commonly used for entertainment by Chilean student teachers in physical education and Spanish students in sports science. Second, according to the country of origin, compare the level of digital competences used for entertainment purposes by these participants. Addressing these objectives provides an initial approach to the role that the entertainment use of digital technologies plays, in comparison to other uses, in the development of digital citizenship competences in university students related to physical activity and sports.

In today's era of rapid technological advancement, technology has a profound impact on our daily lives and society. Technology-rich environments (TRE) not only offer tertiary students collaborative opportunities that foster teamwork and communication skills, but also present unique challenges requiring critical thinking and problem-solving abilities. These challenges include diagnosing and resolving technical issues, designing new hardware or software solutions, and analyzing complex data sets (Mishra et al., 2013; Verdonck et al., 2019). Strong problem-solving abilities enable students to adapt quickly to novel challenges and solve complex problems, making problem-solving in TRE an essential skill for success in the modern workforce and future careers (Hämäläinen et al., 2015). Previous research has explored the relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and students' problem-solving skills to address educational disparities (e.g., Martin et al., 2012). To gain a better understanding of this relationship, it is crucial to examine the potential mediation mechanisms. Previous studies have shown positive connections between SES and students' behavioral engagement (e.g., Guo et al., 2015) and between behavioral engagement and problem-solving (e.g., Guo et al., 2016). Therefore, it is expected that behavioral engagement may serve as a mediator between SES and problem-solving. However, there is limited knowledge about whether behavioral engagement truly mediates the association between SES and problem-solving, particularly in TRE. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the mediating role of behavioral engagement in the relationship between SES and problem-solving in TRE.

Research consistently demonstrates that individuals who employ strategic learning approaches tend to exhibit higher levels of problem-solving (Tan, 2019). Effective learning strategies, such as goal setting, self-regulation, metacognitive monitoring, and the use of problem-solving techniques, play a crucial role in facilitating the acquisition of problem-solving skills (Hoffman & Spatariu, 2008). In addition, previous studies have indicated that students from high-SES families are more likely to possess high levels of problem-solving skills (e.g., Martin et al., 2012). Hence, the strength of the association between SES and problem-solving may vary depending on learning strategies. However, there is currently limited knowledge about the effect of the interaction between SES and learning strategies on problem-solving in TRE. Building upon established research on the relationships between SES and problem-solving (e.g., Martin et al., 2012) and between learning strategies and problem-solving (e.g., Hoffman & Spatariu, 2008), it can be hypothesized that learning strategies moderate the association between SES and problem-solving in TRE. In other words, learning strategies may weaken the strength of the association between SES and problem-solving in TRE. Furthermore, the indirect association, where the relationship between SES and problem-solving in TRE is mediated by behavioral engagement, may also vary depending on learning strategies. To the best of our knowledge, no studies have explored the moderating role of learning strategies in the indirect pathways from SES to problem-solving in TRE through behavioral engagement. Based on emerging evidence concerning the relationships between SES and behavioral engagement (e.g., Guo et al., 2015) and between learning strategies and behavioral engagement (e.g., Hospel et al., 2016), it is plausible to hypothesize the existence of a moderation mechanism involved in the indirect association between SES and problem-solving in TRE. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate whether learning strategies moderate both the direct and indirect associations between SES and problem-solving in TRE, mediated by behavioral engagement.

Digital game-based learning (GBL) is being actively researched (Van Eck, 2006; Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Meyer, Sørensen, 2011; Adams, 2009; Plass, Homer, Kinzer, 2015; Kickmeier-Rust et al., 2011). One of the aspects studied is engagement, which one of the key reasons for the application and wide adoption of GBL because it encourages the players to learn and improve. The researchers analyse the immersion of players in the flow state as a positive phenomenon that has aspects worth discussing. According to the researchers, flow state may positively affect learning (Kiili, 2005), the players immersed in the flow are motivated to solve problems and overcome challenges (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Meyer, Sørensen (2011)), they are highly focused and do not feel the passage of time or fatigue, they stay motivated and self-regulated for a long time, which facilitates learning (Graesser, Chipman, Leeming, Biedenbach, 2009). Meanwhile Marklund and Romin (2020) raise questions about the problematic aspects of flow or immersion: about the loss of self-identity and “wandering” while completing a task, which raises doubts whether reflective thinking is involved because at times the task is lost while playing; and about the influence of social context and personal qualities on learning that can be reduced in the flow state. The researchers (Sinagatullin, 2017; Jeong & Kim, 2011) who investigate addiction to gaming emphasise a similar immersion state that can have a number of negative consequences: players addicted to gaming fail to regulate and plan their time; for them, the use of video games often becomes more important than learning; they can play for hours without pausing; those immersed in games may suffer from back pain due to prolonged sitting in the same position; some develop sleep disorders or neglect personal hygiene; some can develop eating disorders; some children obsessed with gaming suffer from carpal tunnel syndrome; gaming addiction can also have social consequences and provoke unhealthy daily behaviour. Therefore, it is not entirely clear how players experience the immersion state as a complex systemic process and what conditions turn it into a negative cycle that completely absorbs the gamer.

There are multiple studies that analyse individual aspects of immersion and addiction. Brown and Cairns (2004) distinguished three levels of immersion based on the experiences of the players: engagement, engrossment and total immersion, and described several characteristics of immersion. Research by Atan (2024) revealed the negative impact of the gaming addiction on the psychological well-being and health of children. Akaroğlu (2022) studied the impact of parental behaviour on the socio-emotional well-being of players and the development of addiction in them and found that an authoritarian attitude of parents increased the tendency to become addicted; Changho & Ocktae (2017) revealed the influence of being satisfied with one’s relationships with parents, friends, and teachers on the gaming addiction; Morahan-Martin and Schumacher (2000) have shown that lonely gamers find online social interactions attractive and they replace the self-disclosure and intimacy of real-life interactions for them. Lai et al. (2016) identified the predictors of addiction to digital games, which include the frequency and duration of gaming.

The overview of literature shows that the researchers have highlighted certain levels and characteristics of immersion and aspects of the environment that facilitates the development of addiction but no systematic analysis of this phenomenon based on the perspective of the players themselves exists so far. Our study asked the following questions: how do the players experience the immersion state? What processes and contexts are relevant to immersion?

The European key competences framework distinguishes digital literacy among the eight key competences in education (EU, 2006), which is why policy makers and practitioners in Europe and beyond put a great effort in introducing changes that will support the development of these skills (Punie et al, 2017). Digital literacy consists of “knowledge, skills, values and awareness that are required when using ICT and digital media to perform tasks, solve problems, communicate, manage information, collaborate, create and share content, build knowledge effectively, efficiently, appropriately, critically, creatively, autonomously, flexibly, ethically, reflectively for work, leisure, participation, learning, socializing, consuming, and empowerment” (Ferrari, 2012). This competence is required for a full participation in the contemporary society, and it is getting more and more important as requests for using digital resources are expending rapidly in many jobs and other activities, which was especially notable during the pandemic (Kovács Cerović et al, 2021).
Recent Eurostat (2021) data show that about 50% of individuals in the European area have basic overall digital skills, ranging from 25% in Albania to 80% in Scandinavian countries. The latest IEA International Computer and Information Literacy report showed that 1 in 5 students worldwide did not have a functional working knowledge of computers at the end of lower secondary education, with wider differences observed within countries than between countries (Fraillon et al., 2021).
The urging need to ensure a stimulative learning environment for supporting the development of students’ digital literacy prompts teachers to come up with innovative teaching solutions. One such solution comes from a general upper secondary school in Serbia and was awarded with the European Training Foundation Innovative teaching and learning award in 2022 under the “Creating New learning” initiative. A Computer science teacher together with her students have created a game-based learning resource, called “The Escape room”, that corresponds to lower secondary Computer Science curriculum. The resource covers the seven topics of digital literacy: 1. Search the Internet; 2. Reliability of information on the internet and copyright, 3. Online identity; 4. Safety on the Internet; 5. Safe use of digital devices; 6. E-mail and working with shared documents; 7. Open data. The game is set on the Minecraft platform and uses the principles of the escape room game where a player goes through the room, explores a topic by reading information points, and has to answer questions to exit the room and move to the next one.
Previous studies dealing with game-based teaching resources haven’t provided conclusive evidence on whether they are beneficial to learning. A thorough review suggests that game-based resources support motivation for learning (Divjak & Tomić, 2011), however a recent meta-analysis revealed varying findings on their impacts on learning gains, with both positive and negative effects observed, and outcomes being influenced by factors like ease of use or cognitive workload (Zhonggen, 2021). In addition, a study investigating the impact of the experience of enjoyment while playing a game on learning gains found no connection between the two (Iten & Petko, 2016).
The current study was supported by the European Training Foundation initiative “Creating New Learning” and looked into the effects of the Escape room practice. The study took place in two elementary schools and involved three Computer science teachers – the one who developed the practice and two teachers who tried out the practices with their students, as well as researchers who led the study. Considering the ambiguity of previous findings, the study had two goals: 1. to assess whether the Escape room practice improves the motivation for learning, and 2. to assess whether the Escape room practice contributes to learning gains.

Compared with the one-size-fits-all gamification, tailored gamification highlights the importance of individual differences for learning and motivates students by modifying game elements to match their personal user profiles. Yet, it is a challenge for teachers and curriculum designers to use it in practice, since a limited number of studies in this field currently discuss ‘how to tailor’ in the educational settings. The systematic review examined research on tailored gamification for learning based on 43 peer-reviewed articles published between 2013 and 2023. The study aims to investigate tailored gamification for learning by considering the types of student information for creating user profiles, approaches to tailor, and game elements used when tailoring. The details related to student information, tailored approaches and game elements are depicted in tables. According to the taxonomy of Missaoui and Maalel (2021), student information in gamified contexts were grouped as ‘learner information’ (e.g., learning goal and skill), personal information (e.g., demographic data and personality trait), and player information (e.g., player type and preference). The tailored approaches were categorized as personalization, adaption and recommendation by adopting the taxonomies of Klock, et al. (2020). Then we applied the ways of Toda et al. (2019) to categorize game elements for tailored gamification in education into five types, namely, personal, social, ecological, performance, and fictional game elements.

Apart from student learning, personal, and player information, we found that contextual information students in can also differentiate students and should be included into their user profiles when tailoring gamification. Additionally, tailored approaches in the studies that were reviewed included personalization, adaption, recommendation, with user modeling as their basis. Twenty-three game elements in five categories were employed in tailored gamification when using these types of tailored approaches. These results indicated that, students’ user profiles relied on their player information more often, than on their learning and personal information, one main reason for which was that there existed the most existing typologies to identify students’ player types. Second, only a few articles in this review study integrated different aspects of student information to build user profiles and most of them ignored the complexity of human characteristics and needs. Third, most studies modeled users by exploring the types of student information in their profiles, rather than conducting the tailored gamifying classes. In the real learning contexts, personalization and adaption were more commonly reported than recommendation. Moreover, a variety of game element categories reflect multiple aspects of a tailored gamifying system, and each tailored approach has their own preferred types of game elements, respectively.

Researchers should explore more student information and apply multiple types of them when building user profiles in tailored gamification systems and teachers should consider students’ learning contexts and give them instant scaffolding when using gamified systems. Second, to bridge the gap between preparation and implementation, we suggest future researchers conduct design-based studies to develop and evaluate tailored gamification as part of teachers’ instructional practice. Additionally, experimental designs with non-tailored gamification classes as comparisons might help to examine the student outcomes in a rigorous way. Since all game element clusters are important for enhancing student motivation during gamified classes, we would therefore encourage more empirical research on the impact of using all the game element clusters when tailoring gamification for learning.

These findings provide a holistic picture of how to tailor gamification for learning to motivate students. Teachers and curriculum designers can benefit from this study to consider appropriate student information used in user profiles, and tailored approaches during both the class design and implementation, and select appropriate game elements by understanding their game elements when adopting different tailored approaches.

In the near future, the presence of advanced generative technologies, including ChatGPT and other services that use large language models (LLM), has the potential to greatly impact the field of education and the role of teachers within it. In particular, chatbots can perform four roles: interlocutor, content provider, teaching assistant and evaluator [1].

A notable characteristic of large language models (LLM) is their capacity for further training, wherein the initial model can be adapted and refined to cater to a specific subject area. Specifically, large language models (LLM) can undergo additional training using the written works of specific authors, enabling the creation of a “digital counterpart” of real historical figures.

The application of LLM holds significant potential in assisting both students and teachers in their textual work. For students, LLM can serve as a reviewer when working on creative assignments, offering guidance by identifying obvious and serious mistakes. Likewise, teachers can use LLM to conduct preliminary assessments of students' work and identify areas that require further educational attention [2]. This may be particularly useful when evaluating creative essays, a genre of literature known for its concise format and flexible style of presentation. Although essays have a changeable structure, they generally include an introduction, thesis statement, argumentation, and conclusion.

This research aims to investigate the implementation of LLM as a personal assistant in this context. In order to train LLM on specific data and create a “digital counterpart,” several tasks need to be accomplished:

• Gathering and preprocessing a dataset.
• Establishing evaluation criteria and annotating the dataset accordingly.
• Identifying educational shortcomings in LLM.
• Collecting and constructing a training set based on the “question-answer” principle for further training of the large language model.

The primary research focuses include the criteria for annotation required for subsequent training and potential limitations of LLM for educational purposes.

Currently, the scenario of university media education seems to be constituted from an increasing awareness of the need to favor the development of participatory cultures where students not only interact with each other constituting learning communities in the classroom, but at the same time use a whole series of resources extracted from the media flow through which they confer meaning to their daily lives (Jenkins, Ito, Boyd, 2015), conforming then what has been called a culture of connectivity.

One of the phenomena emerging most strongly within this trend towards the shaping of participatory cultures and collective construction is that of transmedia storytelling (Scolari, 2016).

Transmedia storytelling refers to stories told across multiple media. The most important stories tend to flow across multiple platforms and media (Wängqvist, M. & Frisén, A. 2016). From the consumers' perspective, transmedia practices promote multi-literacy, that is, the ability to comprehensively interpret discourses coming from different media and languages. It is a matter of understanding how young people are acquiring transmedia skills and incorporating these processes into the educational sphere so that learning is a collateral effect of creative production and community collaboration, which is called connected learning (Ito, 2010).

The use of digital technologies has provided an opportunity for the exercise of new forms of social interaction that are currently transforming the functioning and role of formal learning institutions, especially schools and universities (Malone, T. W., Bernstein, M. S., 2015). One of the most important challenges we must face is that all these experiences in which new forms of production, communication and acquisition of knowledge, generated in areas of diverse nature and origin are developed, extended and disseminated, have a translation at the educational level, and are transformed into comprehensive learning processes (Ito, 2010). Digital media, then, opens the door to a new educational paradigm in which learning can take place "anytime, anywhere", a cultural dynamic that has been described in the literature as ubiquitous and that reminds us that everyday life becomes a space for new pedagogies and new learning practices.

This study focuses on the possibilities offered by transmedia narratives to initiate open, creative and participatory processes of content production and dissemination in university classrooms from a perspective oriented to social empowerment and community development.

The objective of the research is to deepen the analysis of the design and creation of transmedia narratives elaborated by young university students within the framework of participatory network cultures that combine the creation of multimedia content with educational proposals oriented to social and community development.

The research question of the study are: Do the modalities and strategies of participation, collaboration and propagability present in transmedia literacy processes allow young university students to empower themselves concerning the different spheres present in digital culture and communication?

When our interaction with the world becomes more and more mediated by screens, digital and physical realities are intertwined. It is important to understand how the nature of this new reality affects us in our everyday lives. In this paper we explore third-grade school children’s level of understanding of the algorithmic nature of the digital platforms they use daily and influence on their behavior. The growing use of Artificial Intelligence (AI), algorithms and machine learning, in applications popular among children, are changing the ways they see the world and themselves. To understand how the applications are affecting their experience we wanted to study precisely children’s understanding of the role of algorithms in their use of digital media content. Therefore, we wanted to study one aspect of media and digital literacy, algorithmic literacy.

Understanding of digital literacy lies beyond mere use of digital application, simple ability to use them. To be literate, to read more than what is seen, one should be aware of the underlying algorithms affecting our experiences of interaction with the applications. Recent research, dedicated to the distinctions between multi-platform and single-platform users, has demonstrated how diverse platform engagement significantly enhances algorithmic understanding (Espinoza-Rojas et al., 2023; Shin et al., 2020; Andersen, 2020). These studies underline the factor of users’ adaptive behaviors in response to algorithmic outputs and highlight the importance of emotional and ethical considerations of digital interactions.

Algorithm literacy (AL) can be defined as having an understanding of the utilization of algorithms in online applications, platforms, and services. It involves knowledge of the functioning of algorithms, the ability to critically assess algorithmic decision-making, and possessing the skills necessary to navigate and potentially impact algorithmic operations (Andersen, 2020; Dogruel, 2021; Shin et al., 2022). Algorithmic literacy can be considered the informed ability to critically examine, interrogate, propose solutions for, contest and agree with digital services (Long & Magerko 2020). At the core of algorithmic literacy is explicability, which shapes individuals’ attitudes towards and views on algorithmic decision-making technologies (Hermann 2021).

To explore childrens as users of algorithmic media we conducted a study with a teaching experiment in a third-grade classroom (9 to 10 years old) in [nation]. In the beginning of the experiment the students (N=18) filled a questionnaire measuring the awareness of algorithmic media content. The same questionnaire was filled after the teaching experiment.

In the core of the teaching experiment was the student's own project work done in small teams (2-3 in each). During the classes the students designed advertisements consisting of two photos taken by them and two slogans invented by them and attached to the photos. The task was (1) to design a good advertisement of carrots and (2) a bad advertisement of carrots. To work on their photos each team got a bag of carrots.

In the second class the students voted for the best five advertisements. Then children were provided with a calculation of votes and selection of the top five advertisements with a number of votes each got. Based on the results, the students were asked to share media time for each advertisement. This way the children in teams were acting like a human-algorithm. For the task we didn’t give them any math examples for calculating the shares, but rather let them figure it out (or not) by themselves. The small team discussions were audio recorded during the design of the advertisements as well during making decisions on how long each advertisement should get media time. In the end of the second class we demonstrated how a computer-algorithm would share the media time, based on the votes given.

Research in the field of education has explored the role of accountability policies in different contexts (e.g. Maroy, 2015) and how performance-based systems of accountability have increasingly been implemented to ensure that schools are held responsible for quality improvement on measurable policy-indicators (Camphuijsen, 2020). Recent research has also focused on how digital tools (such as Learning Analytic Platforms, abbreviated as LAPs) are used as policy tools for governance and accountability purposes (Martinez Lunde, 2022). However, less attention has been granted to processes of democratizing these tools by involving and making them transparent to the public. This study intends to address this gap in the literature and contribute to important insights to the intersection of digital and democratic governance of schools, especially in the Nordic countries. The paper is based on the premise that technological democratization is a 'moral imperative'. (Sclove, 1992, p. 143). The Nordic, and especially the Norwegian context emerges as an interesting case as researchers have highlighted tension between internal practice of educational professionals, and external practices such as national testing policy (Martinez Lunde, 2022). Additionally, research suggests that discursive tensions between a language of performance data and democracy has been rendered more visible in policies over time (Larsen et al., 2020).
The overarching research question guiding the study is as follows: How are current digital policy tools used by policymakers and school authorities related to students’ well being and learning outcomes subject to democratization? To address this question, I draw from three theoretical perspectives that inform the discussion. First, theories on accountability (O’day, 2002; Sinclair, 1995) provide a foundation for understanding how digital policy tools may provide transparency and ensure that schools are held accountable for students’ well-being and learning outcomes. This perspective emphasizes the workings of accountability when educational authorities aim to map schools’ practices when it comes to student learning and psychosocial well-being. Second, theories on professionalism (Anderson & Cohen, 2018; Sugrue & Solbrekke, 2014) highlights the importance of educators and policymakers’ autonomy to make informed decisions in the best interest of all students. Moreover, the perspective recognizes the importance of educational professionals’ judgements and contributes to a balanced discussion on the tensions between digital, “top down” governance on the one hand, and situated and contextually based professional judgement as a necessary ingredient in guiding local school development, on the other. Third, the perspective of phronesis or practical wisdom (Aristotle, 1999; Birmingham, 2004) emphasizes the need for ethical considerations and moral virtues in the process of decision-making in processes of digital governance. This perspective is chosen to add another layer of perspective to professional judgement in discussing challenges and opportunities in democratizing digital governance as it emphasizes the ethical and contextually situated judgement as key ingredients in the concept of phronesis. Additionally, the study considers the policy context in which these policy tools are situated and implemented. Even though educational policies and systems vary across countries and regions, these tools are somewhat similar across contexts. Accordingly, understanding the Nordic context will contribute to understanding the democratization of the tools in similar contexts, such as the Anglo-American and European. Also, how these tools are democratized will provide insight into how they can be used for future development of schools, and for the betterment of students’ well-being and learning outcomes.

In recent decades, there has been a major change in the education technology field, as more and more high-tech companies, including start-ups, enter the educational technology arena, previously dominated by big publishers and non-profit organizations. A large portion of the EdTech sector is profit-driven and sees the educational field as a potential market (Williamson, 2017). The discussion on technology and education has been characterized by cycles of hype, hope, and disappointment (Gouseti, 2010). The rise of the EdTech industry in the education field has been accompanied by a similar hopeful discourse about its potential to disrupt and fix the educational system (Selwyn, 2016). Is it another cycle? This question motivated us to examine what pedagogical change(s) EdTech companies offer to schools and to what extent these changes are linked to the pedagogical changes required in the education system as described in the literature.

Educational researchers and leading agencies state that owing to trends of digitalism, globalism, and aspirations towards a knowledge society, life in the 21st century involves new challenges (e.g., growing need for innovation and knowledge creation) (Law 2014; OECD, 2018; Tan et al., 2021). Therefore, today’s students must develop certain skills, orientations, and competencies, often termed 21st-century skills (National Research Council, 2012).

Moreover, educational researchers and agencies state that the educational system should undergo a transformative change towards learner-centered pedagogies. This is imperative because the prevailing teacher-centered instruction in schools is deemed inadequate for fostering 21st-century skills among students (Bremner et al., 2022; Tan et al., 2021; OECD, 2018).

Learner-centeredness is not merely about students being active during the lesson, but rather, it is about students being involved in decision-making about their learning in dialogue with peers and the teacher, metaphorically co-writing the script of their learning with the teachers. In contrast, in teacher-centered pedagogy, teachers write the learning script: they control every aspect of the educational situation (Ben-David Kolikant, 2019; Bremner et al., 2022; Gutierrez et al., 1995).

According to Law (2014), who reviewed empirical studies related to pedagogical innovation and change, another important dimension to consider when analyzing pedagogical innovation and change is the role students, teachers, and technology will play, and their closeness to teacher-centered and learner-centered practice.

Finally, learner-centered pedagogies feature high curricular flexibility. Namely a certain degree of freedom for students to make decisions and co-write their learning scripts and the freedom required for teachers to support the diverse needs that emerge as students undergo these learning processes (Bremner et al., 2022).

This transformative change towards learner-centered pedagogies means restructuring educational goals and a dramatic change in teachers and students' roles and responsibilities (Law 2014; OECD 2018). Such a change can be classified as a second-order change, a term that refers to cases where the system itself undergoes a change that involves restructuring the goals, procedures, and boundaries of the system. In contrast, first-order change refers to cases where there is a change in the way procedures are carried out in a given system, but the system itself and the essence of these procedures remain the same (Ertmer, 2005; Watzlawick et al., 1974). Technology can support and sustain a second-order change towards learner-centeredness (Ertmer, 2005; Law, 2014; OECD, 2018).

We examined EdTech companies that offer pedagogically-oriented products for K-12 formal education from a pedagogical perspective. Data sources were the websites of all companies that presented at the ASU+GSV summit, 2018. Comparing each product’s description against learner-centered pedagogy principles, we revealed that only a few companies aim at second-order change. The majority aim at middle-order change, within which one component of traditional teacher-centered pedagogy is broken, yet the essence of teacher-centeredness is preserved.

Over the last few years, the number of pedestrian fatalities on urban roads has increased, due largely to infractions associated with their behaviors (e.g., crossing when traffic lights are red). It is argued these behaviors reflect a lack of risk perception. Road safety programs have tried to raise awareness through different methods, using quite often experiences with emotional impact (e.g., testimonies of people who have experienced an accident themselves). Advances in technology have made it possible to develop more effective intervention programs. Concretely, VR technology provides new opportunities for human factors research in areas that are dangerous or difficult to study in the real world. Generally, it has been deployed with the aim of increasing the efficacy of these safety programs. Previous studies have demonstrated the potential of VR to improve pedestrian behaviors, especially when it is accompanied by a debriefing and critical reflection. Within this background, the present study aims to provide evidence regarding to what extent the use of VR on road safety might improve pedestrian behavior. Thus, in order to achieve this goal, the following research questions are posed:

RQ1: Having an accident as a pedestrian in a VR might help to improve the behavior in urban environments? In particular, does it help to reduce violations and errors and increase positive behavior? (a) The hypothesis regarding RQ1 (Hypothesis 1) is that having an accident as a pedestrian in VR will be associated with a reduction in the number of violations and errors and an increase in the number of positive behaviors.

RQ2: Having a reflection and debriefing on the experience in an urban VR environment might help to improve pedestrian behavior? In particular, does it help to reduce violations and errors and increase positive behavior? The hypothesis regarding the RQ2 (Hypothesis 2) is that having a reflection and debriefing on the experience will be associated with a reduction in the number of violations and errors and an increase in the number of positive behaviors.

Networks hold a meeting during ECER. All interested are welcome.

As a PhD student, this presentation seeks to elucidate the results from the data obtained from phases 1 and 2 of the research project. The central focus of the research project is the utilisation of Immersive Learning Environments (ILEs) and their impact on promoting learning in early childhood. The motivation for this study stems from my first-hand experiences as a Primary Teacher and Senior Lecturer in Education, observing the evolution of digital resources within the everchanging educational landscape. Notably, my recent role spearheading the development of the Early Years Virtual Learning Environment (EYVE) aimed to create an immersive games-based learning experience for trainee professionals, offering insights into how ILEs can effectively promote learning among higher education learners. This experience prompted a critical examination of whether the lessons learned in higher education contexts could be applied to early childhood education.

The international landscape of early years education is evolving with the integration of digital technology, notably through ILEs. These virtual platforms enhance traditional teaching methods, fostering critical thinking and offering personalised learning experiences for young minds (Vidal-Hall et al., 2020). The shift extends beyond classrooms as a plethora of research has shown that digital technology has become a major part of children’s lives with digital fluency being shown across family households (Edwards et al., 2017; Palaiologou, 2016; Plowman, 2015). However, challenges such as concerns over screen time, privacy, and ensuring equitable access to technology have emerged (Rose et al., 2019; Yuen et al., 2020). Perez (2016) contends that such immersion merely entertains, impeding the potential establishment of vital connections between the digital and real worlds crucial for supporting learning and development. Striking a balance between the benefits and challenges is crucial, emphasising the need for thoughtful integration to harness the full potential of digital tools in early childhood education.

In England, a child from birth to five years is recognised within the statutory guidance known as the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) (DfE, 2021). More recently, the EYFS has undergone changes to remove technology as a specific aspect within the framework. Within the EYFS reforms (DfE, 2020: p9-14) it was noted that there ‘was a concern that technology is missing’ and ‘the removal of technology … would be a negative step’; despite this consultation the technology strand was later removed in September 2021. It could be suggested that this created conflicting views of the value technology has within early years and arguably question how children can gain skills or knowledge of how to use technology effectively and safely without focus placed within the EYFS (Faulder, 2021). In an age of uncertainty, Karabon (2021) agrees that the design of the curriculum should focus on the child at the centre, suggesting that the curriculum and learning space should be led by the child and for the child, recognising the importance of supporting practitioners to integrate technology within everyday practice. Ethridge et al. (2022) echo this, highlighting the pivotal role of technology in fostering play-based learning, particularly evident during virtual teaching experiences prompted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, the OECD (2022) examines the possible trends affecting the future of education from early childhood to lifelong learning, emphasising the indispensability of digital skills and competencies in navigating the challenges of the 21st century.

Navigating the uncertainties of education, this study delves into the relationship between digital learning and societal changes, drawing on Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory (1992). By unravelling these intricacies, the research contributes to the development of robust educational environments within settings and within the home that encapsulate memory and foster a sense of optimism for the future.

Rapid social changes have shaped the demands and challenges that education is called upon to address in recent years. With digital transformation being one of the priorities of the EU, the integration of technology in education in its various forms, such as Blended Learning (BL), is more necessary than ever. BL is the learning approach that combines face-to-face teaching in the classroom in the presence of educators and online teaching in a space outside the school. This research studies the learning environment during the implementation of BL in elementary education for fourth-grade students (aged 9-10) in a public school in an urban area of Cyprus and examines how the learning environment evolved during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research question was: How did blended learning affect the learning environment of fourth-grade students in elementary schools during the Covid-19 pandemic?

The existence of a research gap in investigating the impact of BL within learning environments in Cypriot primary education makes this research significant and necessary. The findings of the research have both practical and theoretical importance, offering guidelines for the successful implementation of BL in primary schools and contributing to clarifying research gaps and understanding the application of BL.

The literature review examined theoretical approaches that recognize the social dimension of learning, such as theories on learning environments, social practices within Communities of Practice, and the climate and culture of the classroom. In these approaches, the unique learning environment of each class significantly affects the quality of students' learning and the achievement of their learning goals. The classroom community functions as a learning community where the participation and interaction of its members are crucial for learning. Similarly, the degree of engagement in classroom practices corresponds to the different social positions a student constructs, along with the associated influences and privileges. Thus, these approaches identify common perceptions about the learning environment of the class. Specifically, the learning environment is influenced: (a) firstly, by the opportunities for interaction among its members, (b) secondly, by the opportunities for personal improvement and development given to students, and (c) thirdly, by the opportunities that create a climate of collectivity within the classroom community.

In the present research, qualitative methods were applied for the collection and analysis of data following an emergent research design. Data were collected from observations and analysis units from posts in the digital tools used, in order to achieve a deeper understanding and interpretation of how BL influenced the children's learning environment. Through the thematic analysis approach, themes were identified and analyzed from the data. The emerging themes were connected with existing theories, advancing the construction of an interpretive and theoretical framework that provides answers to the research question.

The results of the research reflect specific temporal circumstances and may not apply to different conditions, even for students with similar characteristics to the sample, although they align with the findings of other studies on the educational impacts of the pandemic. However, they do provide a representative picture of the response to the crisis brought about by the spread of the virus, which disrupted many aspects of the daily lives of educators and students.

This century is characterised as an era of rapid technological changes (Judy & D’ Amico, 1997). There are great opportunities offered by the Internet and communication technologies. However, the need for training and education of the citizens to be competent in the use of these technologies also emerged (Mannila et al., 2018). At the European Union, citizens acknowledge the importance of training for digital skills and consider it among the top five digital priorities in their countries (European Commission, 2023a). The European Commission introduced a scheme to support the European citizens and to prepare them for this digital era. The Digital Decade policy programme 2030 aims to transform public services, businesses, skills, and infrastructures in Europe by 2030 in order to achieve the objectives and targets for the Europe’s digital transformation (European Commission, 2023b).

Education will be the main pilar in order to address this need for developing digital skills and to support this transformative process. Digital education is the systematic use of digital technologies in teaching and learning in formal and in non-formal education within a community, and the essential technological equipment required to support this educational process (Lynn et al., 2022). Early in 2018, EU introduced the Digital Education Action Plan (DEAP) 2018 – 2020. In September 2020, the new DEAP 2021 – 2027 was introduced by the European Commission as an initiative for this digital era. DEAP includes a vision of inclusive and accessible digital education and has two strategic priorities: fostering a high performing digital education ecosystem and developing digital skills and competences for the European citizens (European Commission, 2023c). Even though the European Union does not interfere in the national education system of its member states, it can affect their policies through initiatives and collective targets (Staude, 2011).

The purpose of this study is to track the process of achieving digital education and to offer suggestions for its progress. This study uses technology integration as an indicator to investigate to what extent teachers use technology for their teaching and their students’ learning. Integration of digital technologies in education systems refers to the embedding of technology to enhance teaching and learning (Conrads et al., 2017). On average less than 40% of educators across the EU feel ready to use digital technologies in teaching, with divergences between EU Member States (OECD, 2018, as quoted in European Commission, 2023c).

This study focuses specifically on the case of Greece. However, it offers recommendations for any European country that aims to enact their digital policies in accordance with the DEAP.

Taking into account the great importance of the technological integration for digital education policies and the need of tracking the process of enactment of these policies, this study aims to examine the progress of the technological integration in the Greek state-funded schools. The research questions are:

1) To what extent do primary school teachers in state-funded schools in Greece currently integrate technology in their lessons?

2) Which factors predict technology integration in state-funded primary schools in Greece?

3) When pre-specified key factors are controlled, is technology integration explained by between-group effects or within-group effects?

Online pedagogical practices highlight their potential in improving availability and inclusiveness, especially for individuals with atypical needs (Khan et al., 2022). In this respect, adults comprise the largest audience for online distance education, since the latter provides an opportunity for flexible and continuous learning (Moore & Kearsley, 2011). Still, there exists factors challenging them to engage in online educational; female adult learners have been found to be an especially vulnerable subset of this population (Kara et al., 2019). Individual acceptance and usage of new technologies can be studied using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM; Davies et al., 1989). According to the TAM, the two key factors in determining the users’ attitudes towards an e-learning system, and consequently, the actual system use, are perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU). Perceived Usefulness (PU) is an individual’s view that the use of a specific system can enhance work performance (Liaw & Huang, 2013). Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) is the extent to which an individual believes the use of a certain technology system will not require so much effort to be achieved.

The present study evaluates the validity of TAM in the context of e-learning adoption of adult female postgraduate students in a higher education distance learning course in quantitative research methods. We investigate whether PU and PEOU predict users' overall satisfaction with the system's usage. Furthermore, we explore whether students' Computer Anxiety has an effect on PU and PEOU. Importantly, we test whether students' Academic Self-Efficacy can be explained by the two factors underlying the e-learning adoption, PU and PEOU. In this respect, we propose that, in addition to outcomes related to the user experience, namely, Satisfaction from the use of LMS, affective outcomes, namely Academic Self-Efficacy, may also be explained be external factors using the TAM framework. We investigate the direct effect of Computer Anxiety on learners' Academic Self-Efficacy and the indirect effect through PEOU and PU. Our hypothesis is that the effect of Computer Anxiety on ASE will be fully mediated by the two main factors of TAM, namely PU and PEOU. In our models, we control for the perceived quality of the Technical Support for the use of the LMS.

Originating from higher education institutions, blended learning has increasingly been permeating the K-12 education system in recent years (Picciano et al., 2012). Blended learning refers to the combination of face-to-face (F2F) instruction with online learning. It combines F2F and distance teaching and learning (Hrastinski, 2019). For K-12 education, specific didactic potentials are anticipated in blended learning. These range from enhanced incorporation of students' home learning and other non-school environments to the reinforcement of adaptive, individualized, and project-based learning, as well as the promotion of cross-disciplinary competencies such as self-regulated learning or computer- and information-related skills (Powell et al., 2014).

Blended learning is more widespread in education systems in which distance learning has long been established due to structural conditions (e.g. low population density, possibility of home schooling) and the digitalization of schools is advanced, such as Australia, Canada or the U.S. (Graham & Halverson, 2022). In contrast, blended learning was initially not widely adopted in schools in many European countries. It was only with the Covid-19 pandemic, which forced a reorientation during phases of complete or partial school closures, that blended learning approaches were developed and tested. Studies on teaching during the Covid-19 pandemic indicate a significant increase in the use of digital media in some European countries, especially with regard to learning platforms and communication tools, as seen in Germany or Austria (Karpiński et al., 2020). Teachers recognized the potential in blended learning formats and expressed in surveys their intention to continue using newly tested teaching methods even after the end of the pandemic (Nalaskowski, 2023).

Studies on implementations, primarily conducted in U.S. K-12 schools, have identified different models of blended learning. Watson (2008) categorizes a total of seven blended learning models on a continuum ranging from traditional face-to-face classroom instruction to instruction that is entirely conducted online and remotely. Staker and Horn (2012) map out a two-dimensional space with the dimensions of location (brick and mortar vs. remote) and course content (offline vs. online), identifying four blended learning models (rotation, flex, self-blend, enriched virtual). This classification has gained widespread recognition and continues to be referenced in numerous studies (e.g., Li & Wang, 2022).

However, models like the ones proposed by Staker and Horn (2012) have limited applicability to the European context, specifically in Germany. For example, three of the four models (flex, self-blend, enriched virtual) are based on a configuration where substantial portions of the curriculum are exclusively or predominantly provided online, a situation that was rare in European schools at least until the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic (European Commission, 2022). Also, K-12 educational institutions transitioning from pure online institutions towards face-to-face learning, as described in Staker and Horn’s ‘enriched virtual’ model are relatively uncommon in Europe, rendering this model even less applicable.Finally, early models like the ones of Staker and Horn are criticized for falling short in considering pedagogical aspects (Graham & Halverson, 2022).

The goal of this study is thus to investigate blended learning models within a European school context. More specifically, the study analyses, which blended learning models have emerged from experiences with the COVID-19 pandemic and how these models are being implemented into regular F2F school practice. Addressing criticisms of early modeling, the analysis incorporates not only physical aspects, such as the arrangement of space and time and the integration of online and offline learning but also aspects related to the design of learning tasks and learning situations.

1. Background of the study

1.1. Problem statements regarding digital technologies for education in digital era

With the rapid innovation of digital technology, the digital transformation of education has accelerated, emphasizing the role of digital technologies in teaching and learning more than ever. The use of digital technology (e.g., Kahoot) to enhance interaction in classrooms, employing personalized learning platforms (e.g., ALEKS), and using augmented/virtual reality to enhance the learning presence are no longer exceptional cases but are commonly found in many classes. Thus, digital technology plays a crucial role in improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the teaching and learning environment.

However, Daniela (2019) pointed out that the centrifugal effect of technology can fragment various components of education, such as learning materials, environments, and peer interactions. Empirical studies have also reported that digital usage in education can lead to social and affective challenges (Lemay, Bazelais, & Doleck, 2021). These issues arising from digital technology necessitate strengthening pedagogical perspectives and approaches in instructional design (Daniela, 2019).

In education, digital technologies are emphasized not only as an environment but also as a competence for learners. The Digital Education Action Plan 2021-2027 of the European Commission (2020) highlighted “Enhancing digital skills and competences for the digital transformation” as its second priority. Learner’s digital literacy (Eshet-Alkalai, 2004) significantly impacts learning achievements in technology-based education (Tang & Chaw, 2016). Therefore, in the context of digital education, it is essential to consider digital literacy as a factor influencing learning, and to ensure that the use of technologies in educational processes naturally enhances learners' digital literacy.

1.2. Research idea to address the problem

In this research, we aim to address educational problems arising in the era of digital innovation by enhancing traditional instructional design model, ASSURE, based on technology-related theory.

The ASSURE model (Heinich, Molenda, Russell, & Smaldino, 1999) is an instructional design model to guide the effective integration of media and learning materials into classrooms. It is a generalized instructional design model like the ADDIE and Dick & Carey models, applicable to various situations and contexts. The model, known for its practicality and effectiveness in enhancing learning achievements, has been widely used so far (Kim & Downey, 2016; Lei, 2023).

However, unlike the past when delivery media were predominantly used, recent technologies are characterized by increased complexity and messiness (Ross & Collier, 2016). In this context, inconsiderate adoption of technology without adequately considering learners' readiness or pedagogy can induce techno-stress and may even lead to extraneous cognitive load (Agbu, 2015; Skulmowski & Xu, 2022). Therefore, if the ASSURE model, a widely used instructional design model, is revised to assist in the integration of innovative technologies into education, it is expected to be more beneficial in the digital era.

As a theoretical framework to improve ASSURE, Task-Technology Fit (TTF; Goodhue & Thompson, 1995) can be considered. TTF is defined as “the degree to which a technology assists an individual in performing his or her portfolio of tasks” (p. 216). Applying TTF to learning implies that if there is an appropriate fit between the learner’s digital literacy (individual characteristics), learning activities (task characteristics), and digital technology for education (technology characteristics), the effectiveness of learning is expected to increase.

1.3. Study objectives and research Questions

Building on the limitations of existing instructional design model in the age of innovative technologies, this study aims to revise ASSURE model based on the TTF model. Research questions are as follow:

Q1. Revised ASSURE mode based on the task-technology fit theory (ASSURE-TTF model) is valid?

Q2. Instructional design according to revised ASSURE model con contribute to the integration of innovative technologies into classes?