Conference Agenda

The paper is part of national and international studies aimed at defining and assessing digital competencies, with particular attention to those of students at different school levels.

Digital competencies are at the top of the European political agenda, aiming to improve them for digital transformation. The European Skills Agenda 2020 promotes digital competencies and supports the goals of the Digital Education Action Plan for the development of a high-performance digital education system. The Digital Compass and the European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan set targets to reach at least 80% of the population with basic digital skills and 20 million specialists in information and communication technologies by 2030. In Italy, the current legislation (National Plan for Recovery and Resilience) provides for the country to equip itself with a system of certification of digital competencies from 2025.

It is therefore necessary to define what is meant by digital skills and to measure them. In this perspective, INVALSI, the Italian National Institute for the Evaluation of the Education and Training System, is launching the DIGCOMP.MIS project to define a prototype model to attest digital competencies, applicable for spring 2025; reference are students of secondary II second grade but with the prospect of observing the evolution of digital skills from the end of secondary first grade to the end of secondary second grade.

The framework assumed by INVALSI and by this paper is DIGCOMP 2.2. (Digital Competence Framework for Citizens) developed by the European Commission to describe and assess the digital skills of citizens aged 16 and over.

From 2013 to today, DIGCOMP has found application in the context of employment, education, training, and lifelong learning; it has been adopted at the European level to build the Digital Skills Indicator and to monitor the Digital Economy and Society Index.

Specifically, this project deals with the definition of the levels of digital competence and the adequacy thresholds corresponding to the different school grades.

In large-scale educational surveys, the variables considered consist of skills, knowledge, or skills possessed at a stage of the school career or in a given age group, constructs not directly observable, but defined based on a theoretical reference framework and operationalized to administer standardized tests.

An outcome in terms of numerical score, however, is not directly informative of what students with a given score know and can do concerning the investigated domain; this is a limit for those interested in interpreting the results of a survey and obtaining information for interventions or teaching practices.

The attribution of an explicitly described level allows students, families, and teachers to have significant feedback, which can be integrated by the students into their perception of competence and useful for teachers teaching. Many national and international surveys combine a score result with a description of the corresponding level; similarly, INVALSI does.

The aim of the project will therefore be to define the type of target levels and their identification.

The paper aims to give an account of the first phase of the project, particularly the analysis of scientific literature and models tested or in use in other European contexts that allow linking of the elaboration of the model to the most authoritative and updated studies of national and international research; This, together with the reference to the DIGCOMP framework, allows the proposed model to be modular also given future comparative developments of digital competences surveys.

Social-emotional competences are crucial for children’s development, especially in middle childhood. Numerous frameworks describe social-emotional competences (Soto et al., 2019), often focus on the acquisition of social-emotional skills: i.e., social-emotional learning (SEL). SEL aims to enhance five interrelated individual competences: self-awareness, self-management, social-awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making (CASEL, 2024). Promoting SEL not only helps to prevent behavioral disorders but also positively influences other areas, such as prosocial behavior, well-being, and academic skills (Durlak et al., 2022).

To assess these competences and measure the effectiveness of SEL interventions, accurate assessment instruments are needed, for both research and educational purposes (McKnown et al., 2017; Soto et al., 2019). These instruments should identify risks to social-emotional well-being and then ease the search for appropriate interventions supporting each child’s individual development (Denham et al., 2016). Especially concerning children during their early school years, developing and/or improving assessment tools in the area of social-emotional competences is essential (e.g., Abrahams et al., 2019; Halle & Darling-Churchill, 2015).

Addressing this need for accurate assessments for children (Soto et al., 2019), we developed a screening to assess social-emotional skills. In addition to the dimensions proposed in the CASEL model, we also considered four subdomains that were identified by Halle and Darling-Churchill (2016) as frequently being part of social-emotional assessments: social competence, emotional competence, behavior problems, and self-regulation. Based on these models and proposed sub-competences, we developed a digital screening taking into consideration Emotion Recognition, Prosocial Behavior, Emotion Regulation, and Social Situations. As our target group is children at an early stage of schooling (6 to 8 years), we used a digital approach via tablets and provided all questions and instructions as audios and in a written form. This enabled children to work at their own pace using headphones. Another advantage of the digital assessment is a higher motivation of the children (Blumenthal & Blumenthal, 2020).

For measuring Prosocial Behavior and Emotion Regulation, we used a 5-point Likert scale with the word-based response format rating ‘never’ to ‘very often’ to achieve better scale properties and more differentiated results than with the traditional yes-no format (Mellor & Moore, 2014). The subtest Social Situations is a situational judgement test (SJT), consisting of descriptions of challenging school scenarios (e.g., someone laughing at the child) supported by a graphical representation. The test offers four different behavioral options describing reactions in the scenario. Children rate these options on a 5-point Likert scale referring to whether or not they would react like proposed in the option. The scale is anchored in “certainly would” and “certainly would not” react like this, as used by Murano et al. (2020). This subtest requires social-cognitive information processing (Crick & Dodge, 1994), and SJT is a promising approach assessing social skills (Soto et al., 2019). The subtest Emotion Recognition is a performance measurement, therefore, very robust against attempts of faking good (Abrahams et al., 2019). Pictures of facial expressions (produced with the support of artificial intelligence) representing emotions are presented and children choose the fitting emotion out of five options.

Currently, we are piloting this assessment tool in two pilot studies with second graders. First, using a participatory approach, we ask children how they liked the screening and where they experienced challenges. The collected feedback is then used to adapt the instrument before implementing it with a larger group. Our presentation will focus on the following two research questions:

• Is the assessment user-friendly and intuitive for Grade 2 students in individual and group settings?
• Do the items of the introduced screening meet criteria like difficulty and discriminatory power?
• Does the proposed structure fit the findings in the factor analyses?

Historically, school mathematics has been viewed as a complex and abstract subject with little relevance to daily life (Ernest, 2016). Eccles (1983) found that student negativity towards mathematics increases over time, mirroring a decline in self-belief and motivation. Eccles et al. (1993) subsequently investigated the causes of declining motivation, and found that getting older was not the primary driver; rather the decline was influenced by teachers exhibiting more control over students as they advanced through grades, restricting student decision-making and conveying lower expectations in students’ ability.

In their seminal report, Kilpatrick et al. (2001) identified five interconnected components that are necessary to learn mathematics successfully. One of these components is productive disposition, essentially a combination of self-efficacy and perceived usefulness for mathematics (Kilpatrick et al., 2001). Both self-efficacy and seeing that mathematics demonstrates utility (useful for future goals) are considered vital for motivation (Gafoor & Kurukkan, 2015).

For this study, Eccles & Wigfield’s (2020) Situated Expectancy-Value Theory will be used as a theoretical framework. The framework indicates primarily that expectancies and values drive future performance. Eccles (1983) found that motivation is boosted when students value the tasks that they are engaging with. Task values are a function of attainment values (Importance of succeeding), intrinsic values (Enjoyment), utility values (help with forthcoming goals) and cost(Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). In their framework, Eccles & Wigfield (2020) indicate that utility value is the most ‘malleable’ of task values. Utility value interventions have shown promise in improving student effort generally (Hulleman et al., 2008), but also specifically within mathematics (Liebendörfer & Schukajlow, 2020). However, despite evidence that utility value interventions positively impact student motivation, many teachers are unaware of its relevance (Hulleman & Barron, 2013).

While utility value interventions may improve motivation, what one person might see as useful another may not; it is important to remain cognisant of the fact that utility values are individual, and can be influenced by cultural differences. It is therefore worthwhile considering the potential of culturally responsive teaching as a method of enhancing students’ perceived utility values towards mathematics. Hunter et al. (2016) noted student reactions to culturally relevant interventions, citing comments such as “When the problems are about us you can see that maths is real and it’s useful……not just something random you do at school”. This demonstrates that relating mathematics to familiar contexts can impact utility value. Lowrie (2004) also highlights the benefits of using artefacts to make mathematical tasks more realistic, which may lead to students seeing increased utility value in mathematics.

Another approach that has been noted as supporting students to understand the relevance of more abstract mathematical concepts is mathematical modelling (Liebendörfer & Schukajlow, 2020). With mathematical modelling there is no definite answer; students take real-life scenarios, mathematise them, identify variables, make assumptions, generate initial solutions before iteratively reviewing the process (Sahin et al., 2019). By engaging with the process of modelling, students can reflect and generate further examples themselves. Regular Mathematical modelling tasks can enable students to encounter numerous concepts routinely in a variety of contexts, benefitting productive disposition and indeed all five components of mathematical proficiency (Kilpatrick et al., 2001).

The goal of this research is to draw together mathematical modelling and culturally responsive teaching in an approach to mathematics teaching that aims increase students’ perceived utility values, productive disposition and motivation, ultimately contributing to successful learning of mathematics. The overarching research question is: What impact does incorporating culturally relevant mathematical modelling tasks have on students’ utility value for mathematics?

Educational assessment studies show that students have difficulties in mathematics, particularly in problem solving. This could be a difficulty in at least one of the four phases (Polya, 1945), namely: understanding the problem, making a plan, carrying out the plan, and looking back. Other studies have also examined the different ways in which students cope with such difficulties. Problem solving is a fundamental skill, both now and in the future. Researchers have long been concerned with its development, and its relevance remains undiminished. The academic study of problem solving emerged in the second half of the 20th century. In the 1970s and 1980s, it focused primarily on elucidating the nature of mathematical problems, students' approaches to solving them, and the salient aspects of problem solving that warrant investigation (Schoenfeld, 1985). More recently, scholarly attention has shifted to educators' perspectives on problem solving and strategies for its improvement (Boaler, 2002; Schoenfeld, 2010, 2014; Stein et al., 2008).

In this study, we have investigated the multifaceted domain of problem solving, with a particular focus on the strategies employed in solving mathematical word problems. Van der Schoot et al. (2009) investigated the factors that differentiate successful and less successful problem solvers in their approach to word problems, highlighting in particular the impact of consistency and markedness. Recognised as a fundamental tool for assessing students' practical application of mathematical knowledge, mathematical word problems are often presented in text form rather than using purely mathematical symbols (Daroczy et al., 2015). In solving these problems, as highlighted by Verschaffel et al. (2000), the solver is required to use mathematical operations on known or inferred numerical values from the problem statement to arrive at a solution. This process, according to Kang et al. (2023), can serve as an indicator of the problem solver's abstract reasoning ability. Recently, the scholarly focus has shifted to exploring educators' perspectives on problem solving and coping strategies to improve it (Boaler, 2002; Schoenfeld, 2010, 2014; Stein et al., 2008). Significantly, not every mathematical word problem is sufficiently challenging for students, highlighting the need for exposure to truly complex tasks that promote mathematical sense making (Marcus & Fey, 2003; NCTM, 1991; van de Walle, 2003). Word problems are a particularly difficult type of problem for mathematics students (Verschaffel et al., 2020). Jacobson (2023) defines dyscalculia as a term for specific learning disabilities that affect a child's ability to do arithmetic and number. The estimated prevalence is 5-7% in primary school children. Mathematics covers a wide range of areas: arithmetic, problem solving, geometry, algebra, probability and statistics. Solving mathematical problems requires students to mobilise a range of skills related to number sense, symbol decoding, memory, visuospatial skills, logic, etc., and may lead to difficulties in any one or a combination of these skills (Karagiannakis et al., 2014). Even if these students have not been diagnosed with a mathematical disorder, they need systematic support to learn mathematics because, according to a study by Nelson and Powel (2017), they are likely to continue to experience mathematical difficulties in the future. This paper aims to construct a model for overcoming mathematics learning difficulties by taking into account the congruent abilities required for problem solving, based on Feuerstein's (2015) mediated learning method and Karagiannakis et al.'s (2014) mathematics learning difficulties.

How to develop skills and motivation to learn mathematics?

I speak from the perspective of Polish experiences in developing maths education. I refer to transmissive teaching in accordance with the curriculum culture. I do this with hope this might be interesting for an international audience as the beyond Polish specificity this case pertains to a more universal validity. The results my research show the importance of individualization of teaching and the role of building a sense of self-competence and mathematical self-confidence. At school, mathematics education is often based only on providing students with knowledge and implementing the core curriculum. According to Małgorzata Żytko (2013), the National Survey of Third-Grade Skills [Ogólnopolskie Badanie Umiejętności Trzecioklasistów, OBUT] suggested that the main aim of education is the implementation of the core curriculum, not the development of children and meeting their individual educational needs. Anna Brzezińska (1986) similarly stated that the teaching and communication style in the teaching-learning process should be "child-oriented" and not "core curriculum-oriented". She said that you should talk to the child and organize situations in which the student actively participates, investigates and tries to solve problems on his own. In turn, Edyta Gruszczyk-Kolczyńska (2011) proved that primary school reduces mathematical abilities. She showed that more than 50% preschoolers have mathematical abilities such as ease of learning mathematics, great cognitive curiosity, creativity, accuracy and independence in solving mathematical tasks. In the group of first-graders, only 12,5% students has outstanding talents. Gruszczyk-Kolczyńska noticed that after eight months of school, children are less creative, less courageous and have a lower sense of meaning in learning than in kindergarten. Therefore, the priority of my research was to focus on the developing the skills and motivation to learn mathematics of students with different levels of competence and meeting individual educational needs of each student. The basic questions that guided the research were: how to work on individualised strategies of teaching mathematics being a schoolteacher, so that each student makes progress in learning mathematics? What is the importance of strengthening a child's self-confidence and motivation in learning mathematics? What teaching methods and forms of work will be best for each student? I did the research among eight-grade primary school students. There were 21 students in this group. The research lasted from September 2022 to February 2023. The study group were students from Ukraine, students with dyslexia, selective auditory processing disorders and hyperactivity. I created an original program. It considered the individualization of teaching mathematics. I used a scaffolding strategy and various methods and forms of work (e.g. tutoring, project method, problem-based learning, using tasks with different levels of difficulty) and adapted the subject matter to the cognitive capacity of each student.

The shortage of mathematics teachers has raised several concerns in education systems around the world. One pressing issue involves addressing the vacancies in classrooms, often leading to the emergence of the out-of-field (OOF) teaching phenomenon. This phenomenon entails teaching a subject without a background in the subject or preparation for teaching it. Part of the literature have focused on the impact of teacher qualifications on students’ academic performance. There are studies that reveal disadvantages for students taught by OOF teachers (Porsch & Whannell, 2019). In subjects with cumulative content, such as mathematics, the complexity of which escalates across grade levels, the significance of teachers' qualifications becomes notably pronounced (Hobbs & Törner, 2019). Other strand of literature focus on the consequences for teachers. Challenges in competence and the additional workload associated with OOF teaching are often connected to job dissatisfaction and emotional challenges, including stress, anxiety, and burnout (Buenacosa & Petalla, 2022).

Consequently, different policies have emerged to address the issue of OOF mathematics teaching. Focusing on the English former Teacher Subject Specialism Training (TSST) programme and the Australian (NSW) Mathematics Retraining program, this study was guided by the question: how is the phenomenon of OOF mathematics teaching constructed in these two policies? Remembering that policies are designed by people makes us reflect on the assumptions that were made about the phenomenon, and which were left out

In 2023, the media has echoed the phenomenon, highlighting that 12% mathematics lessons are taught by someone without a mathematics degree in England, while in Australia 33% of secondary maths teachers were OOF (Carey & Caroll., 2023; Weale, 2023). England and Australia share historical ties, but they also exhibit distinctive educational systems shaped by unique cultural, policy, and contextual factors. This paper shedding light on the nuanced ways each case problematizes and therefore acts upon the same phenomenon. This paper has two objectives. On the one hand, to identify, through the analysis of two international cases, the assumptions regarding the phenomenon of OOF teaching. On the other hand, to compare the representations given to the phenomenon in England and NSW.

Traditionally in policy analysis, there has been a conventional belief that policy documents are rational and objective reactions to pre-established and fixed social problems (Bacchi, 2009; Ball, 1993). Therefore, analysts often inquire “what is this policy doing to fix the identified problem?” (Bacchi, 2009). Bacchi argues that these texts, by outlining necessary changes, incorporate implicit representations of the issue or problem they intend to address. Moreover, she contends that such policy documents may inadvertently contribute to defining and spreading the very issues they seek to solve.

In our interconnect world, characterized by widespread access to technology and information, it is increasingly important to understand teachers´ role in human and social development (Rodrigues & Martins, 2018). Educating people for present and future times, requires mastery of the learning competences for the 21st century (P21, 2015) and their relationship with the structured of school curricula.

One of the roles of science education is to educate citizens to be prepared to critically analyze scientific information, make informed decisions, and actively participate in civic issues related to science (Justi et al., 2022). It is essential that, since the beginning of teacher training, Science Education is presented through the cross-related perspective between Science, Technology and Society (STS) orientation (Vieira et al., 2011), specifically combining theoretical and practical teaching strategies (Rodrigues, 2011).

STEAM is an educational approach based on a student-centered methodology, with an interdisciplinary perspective between Science, Technology, Engineering, Art and Math areas, and focused on solving real or realistic problems (Shernoff et al., 2017). STEAM Education fosters key competencies, namely creativity, problem-solving, collaborative work, communication and others (Perignat & Katz-Buonincontro, 2019).

The development of Creativity during the learning process stands out as it is a key point in fostering existing and future problem-solving, several cognitive skills, and also revealing potential for innovation in educational, economic and social spheres (Plucker et al., 2004). Creativity can be understood as a cross-disciplinary ability to produce individual or collective ideas and strategies that are original, critical, plausible and feasible (Beghetto, 2007). Craft (2010) defends that creativity is human potential manifested in different cognitive domains, so everybody is potentially creative by nature.

In order to educate future citizens with these competencies, it is necessary to cultivate them the early years and throughout a life learning context. Clearly, it is urgent to encourage a teacher training approach that presents innovative teaching and learning methodologies (Ompok et al., 2020).

In this project, we chose to approach STEAM education through a Challenge-Based Learning (CBL) methodology. CBL aims, in a collaborative, multidisciplinary and experiential way, to identify, investigate and propose solutions to real CTS problems along the learning process (Rådberg et al., 2020).

This study has in view answering the question "What are the perceptions of pre-service teachers about creativity education?", identifying possible changes in the perception of creativity in the educational process. It was utilized scales of perception about creativity, already validated in literature, before and after the implementation of a formative proposal based on STEAM education and creativity promotion, through CBL methodology.

This communication is part of a doctoral project whose main research question is How creative thinking and teaching skills can be promoted for science primary school teaching through a STEAM approach? With specific questions to answer: i)How to develop a proposal for pre-service primary teachers initial training through a STEAM approach promoting creative thinking? ii) What are the effects of the STEAM formative proposal on developing creative thinking in pre-service primary school teachers? iii) What is the relation between the creative thinking level and developing primary school science teaching competencies?

The PhD project has the following research goals: i)To develop (design, plan, validate, implement and evaluate) a STEAM & Creativity formative proposal that promotes the creative thinking of pre-service teachers; ii) To evaluate the effects of the STEAM & Creativity formative proposal on the level of creative thinking and it´s relation to developing teaching skills; iii) To develop a set of recommendations from the research results for primary school science teacher training.

Proposal Information (590/600 words):

Empirical research has historically been shaped by the doctrine that power in research should be held by the researcher over the research participant. This approach, however, has often resulted in marginalized groups not being represented accurately, as the researcher's choices will shape the scope of what is discoverable in the work. By allowing researchers to have complete control over the research design, participants' agency is often limited, leading to results that are not truly reflective of their concerns. Reconsidering this power imbalance and exploring ways to foreground the authentic concerns of participants is growing to be a key concern in social justice research, particularly in relation to neurodiverse participants, where disrupting traditional research orthodoxies can help bridge this gap and enact emancipatory participation in social justice research.

This paper presents an examination of my PhD work and how emancipatory participation has been considered in the design to disrupt traditional research power imbalances. In the work, four dyslexic participants shared their experience of the university library using photovoice methods and member check processes. Utilising theoretical frameworks drawn from the writings of Gramsci (1971) and Friere (1970), the content of the paper will illustrate areas of good practice in the research, and postulate what could be improved in future endeavours with dyslexic participants to maximize their input in sharing their experience as part of social justice research.

As I sought to evidence the experiences of dyslexic library users, the methods were carefully considered with participant agency in mind. The definitions used to identify dyslexics are often underpinned by a deficit approach; the most ubiquitous and synonymous characteristic of dyslexics is a failure to meet expected reading and writing levels, (Rice & Brooks, 2004; Elliot & Gibbs, 2008) where these levels vary by country and language, such as the case of bilingual monolingual dyslexics who are considered dyslexic in one language but not another (Miles, 2000; Wydell & Butterworth, 1999). Consequently, it is pertinent to question how insight into the lives of this marginalized group is gained, and whether methods of inquiry are congruent to participant living experience and strengths.

I wished to foreground the participants' voices’, reducing my control over the data in the process, I crafted co-production activities through which participants and I could work together to ensure that my writing was representative of their experiences and that I had not misunderstood or impressed meaning into their stories based on my subjectivities. I kept note of my subjectivities in a methodological reflexivity journal, where I recorded a personal inventory (Gramsci, 1971) and memos (Charmaz, 2011; 2014) about my thinking, feelings, and experiences that related to the ones participants shared so that I could identify overlaps in our stories as I sought to relate to theirs without assuming I understood their experience. Traditional methods, such as structured interviews, where question sets remain inflexible to the insights gleaned from participants, do not allow for agentic input from participants or the corresponding rich data that can be accessed. The work appealed to a constructivist grounded theory methodology that allowed for the alteration of questions used in the semi-structured interview, to better reflect the discourses which arose in the data where I had not considered such aspects of library use in the study design (Charmaz, 2014). Altering the research tools (i.e., the question set) to reflect participants' insights thereby allows for an investigation into the authentic concerns of the participants and enables the investigation to take shape according to themes that are truly grounded in the richness of the data that was reflective of participants' unfolding stories.

The title of our paper is a reminder that the intersectionality of culture, race, and gender remains crucial in doctoral education. Globally, the experiences of doctoral students, their borderland crossings into new academic discourse communities and having to navigate dual roles or identities of being or becoming researchers draw considerable attention (Ref). However, a growing body of global research focuses specifically on the challenges of female doctoral students who confront the additional burden of navigating their dual role or identities as mothers and caregivers that results in increased time commitment required for study and compromises their emotional well-being or dual guilt due to a lack of family and institutional support (Breitenbach et al., 2019; Catalano & Radin, 2021; CohenMiller, 2014). This global phenomenon is also true in Uzbekistan where female doctoral students' academic success is often hindered by familial responsibilities, with a high portion getting married and becoming mothers during that time.

In the Uzbekistan higher education (HE) landscape females account for less than 30% of all doctoral students. In this context, women are not only underrepresented but also take longer to complete their doctoral education and tend to opt out of the Ph.D. programs more frequently than their male counterparts. Of particular concern was the lack of attention given to the experiences of doctoral student mothers in Uzbekistan since it carries profound implications, creating a void in women’s opportunities and hampering Uzbekistan’s economic development.

Guided by a postcolonial approach and social-constructivist paradigm, this research integrated matricentric feminist theory, Bourdieusian sociological concepts, and Lave and Wenger’s (1991) Community of Practice theory to better understand the different factors such as societal traditions, socio-cultural expectations, and their gender roles that impact the experiences of Uzbek DSMs in-depth. The preliminary results reveal that the interplay of gender, habitus, and Uzbek religious and cultural norms not only contributes to inequalities but also significantly influences the identity construction of researcher roles, particularly based on gender. For example, the data suggests that gender and family play a significant role in shaping motherscholars’ identity, which was starkly pronounced in cases of those, who were living with parents-in-law, confronting additional layers of familial and societal expectations. The participants experienced various challenges caused by having to balance the multiple roles of a mother and a doctoral student. In particular, a threat to well-being (a high level of emotional stress), and lack of family, institutional and government support were the major ones. Unwritten “hierarchical” rules inherited by the former Soviet Union, scarcity of financial support, institutional strategic policies and a free childcare policy also were key themes. gender-bias patterns were common in the narratives of Uzbek motherscholars, which can be linked to inferior and submissive role of women in the family and social hierarchies. Cultural norms dictated the participants’ interaction with men and women. Lack of spousal support was considered as norm, as the mentality and accepted social rules don’t allow men to help women in households or childcare. Fundamentally, the gendered impact of parenthood and a heavier burden falling specifically on mothers, the doctoral mothers encounter more challenges (Correl et al., 2007; Morgan et al., 2021). These findings further corroborate the policy recommendations given by these 15 doctoral student mothers from Uzbekistan to dismantle systematic barriers they face and promote equitable opportunities for them.

Finally, this research offered insights into a historically marginalized and overlooked community - the lived experiences of doctoral student mothers - amplifying their voices. Also, it contributed to a more inclusive and supportive academic environment and generate implications that can inform higher education institutions on how to better support doctoral student mothers in successfully and timely completing their doctoral programs.

This study explores the underrepresentation of women academics of colour (WAC) in British STEM academia, building upon a substantial body of literature highlighting the glaring and seemingly intractable lack of diversity within UK STEM faculties and across global STEM academia (WISE, 2019). Beyond numerical inequities, existing evidence points to a higher likelihood of WAC being disproportionately concentrated in junior academic positions, indicative of unequal power relations (APPG, 2021). This is compounded by nuanced issues relating to idealised and masculinised cultures prevalent across STEM disciplines (Carlone and Johnson, 2007) as well as issues of knowledge otherness – referring to how WAC are epistemologically marginalised/silenced (Ong et al., 2018). Even more is the prevailing tendency to prioritise gender as the primary focus in inequity discussions, often overshadowing race (Bhopal and Henderson, 2021), and other categories such as class, age, sexuality, and disability within initiatives and policy actions aimed at promoting equity in STEM. This tendency may, in part, stem from the discomfort surrounding discourses of sexism, racism, and experiences of marginalisation as well as the challenges associated with addressing these issues at institutional levels (Ahmed, 2012).

It is therefore not surprising that while there are substantial scholarly works on the underrepresentation of women in STEM as well as a disproportionate underrepresentation of WAC in British higher education, there remains a dearth of research studies exploring gender-race intersectionality in STEM, particularly within the UK context (e.g., Casad et al., 2021; Ong et al., 2018; most of which are studies conducted in the US). This is a gap this study seeks to support in literature, contributing to pressing calls to decolonise British STEM academia while extending research on the underrepresentation of WAC in STEM beyond gender and race-based discrimination to complex issues relating to epistemological hegemony, cultural conformity, and counter-technologies, all of which are interlinked with the underrepresentation of WAC in STEM. Against this backdrop, the study seeks to address the overarching question of how orientalist power dynamics serve to perpetuate and/or exacerbate inequitable patterns of representation for these women in STEM faculties. More specifically, it explores ways in which WAC’s gender and racial/ethnic identities intersect to constrain their progression, retention, and equitable representation more broadly in STEM. This includes how these women subvert the power of dominant discourses through micro-practices of resistance and techniques of power (Ahmed, 2012; Ong et al., 2018).

In search for answers around the intersectional barriers and the underlying processes that pose obstacles towards equitable representation for these women, I adopt a post-colonial perspective, drawing on Said’s (1978) epistemological conception of orientalism. Said defines this as a discursively constructed power relation between two constructed regions - the ‘Orient’ and ‘Occident’. Underpinning this power relation are discourses that work to explicitly or implicitly present the knowledge and ideas of the West/Occident as ‘developed’ and superior while the Orient/East is essentialised as ‘underdeveloped’ and inferior. In addition to postcolonial scholars, as well as post-colonialist feminists such as Spivak (1988) and Subedi and Daza (2008), I draw on complementary work from Foucauldian poststructuralist feminism. This approach views power relations – including gender - as discursively constructed and fluid (Foucault, 1988; Butler, 1990; Hall, 1996), shifting the study's focus from discursive narratives based on participants’ sense of subjectivity to a structural understanding of how STEM cultures and practices perpetuate inequities on gender and ‘race’ lines.

Topic:

Under-representation of female doctoral students has been identified as a gender-specific injustice of higher education restricting women from academic careers (UNESCO UIS, 2017). In China, this phenomenon is the case. Female participation has exceeded 50% in both Bachelor’s and Master’s programmes since 2011, but is significantly lower in doctoral programmes. Take the latest data as an example, in 2022, female students accounted for 52.90% in Bachelor’s programmes, 52.89% in master's programmes, but only 41.91% in doctoral programmes (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2023). However, since educational choice is seen as personal, this issue is ignored and under-researched, or explained away as opt-out through a group decision preference. It is imperative to understand the actual ‘choices’ prospective female doctoral students have and how they make the decision of either pursuing or giving up doctoral studies.

Research Objectives:

The project is designed to 1) identify the choice dilemmas in the personal decision-making experience of these female students; 2) understand, in a Chinese cultural context, how they identify options available to them and make their decisions; 3) identify root causes of female students opting out of doctoral studies after considered decision-making.

Research Questions:

Research question 1: What choice dilemmas do prospective female doctoral students face when making the decision on pursuing doctoral studies?

Research question 2: When faced with choice dilemmas, how do they make their own choices or how do they delegate their autonomy of choice to others? What choice skills and relevant identification or reflection involved, respectively?

Research question 3: In the process of decision-making, how do the constituents in these dilemmas interact with cultural discourses and then limit their agency of decision-making?

Theoretical framework:

The paper uses the theoretical framework of Schwarz's cultural sociology of choice centered on culture, choice and agency. Schwarz (2018) has argued for a cultural theory of choice and decision-making as a more valid account of actual social behaviour than the interpretations and predictions offered by rational choice-inspired theory. Choices are cultural and choice processes are culture-specific ways of doing based on normativity, which rely on both cultural-specific choice techniques and culturally knowledge of the options.

Significance:

This study contributes to the understanding of choice and its process as ever-changing social phenomena and the examination of gender equality in Chinese doctoral education based on cultural sociology of choice.

This paper presents preliminary findings from the research project, A Part and Apart? Education and social inclusion of refugee children and youth in Iceland (ESRCI)

After generations of upbringing in migration destinations, children and young people grow up within communities with strong transnational ties to countries of origin (Olwig, 2011, 2013). Children’s identification and sense of belonging also refer to local places in the countries of residence (Olwig, 2003) such as school, a place children identify strongly with. Children thus operate with multiple, shifting identities, developing multiple relationships and a sense of belonging (Motti-Stefanidi & Masten, 2017; Ragnarsdóttir & Hama, 2018a; Tran & Lefever, 2018). Belonging has been argued to be multidimensional involving four distinct dimensions, such as a fundamental need to belong; a need to be connected to people and places and sharing memberships; belonging to a distinct social group; and a process of power and politics on micro and macro levels where children become excluded and included (Johansen & Puroila, 2021). Research shows that young Syrian refugees use social media platforms like Facebook, WhatsApp, and Snapchat to strengthen ties and connect across cultural divides (Veronis, Tabler, & Ahmed, 2018) and globally, unaccompanied refugees use Facebook, WhatsApp, Viber, and Skype for emotional bonding despite geographical distance (Gillespie et al., 2016; Kutscher and Kress, 2018). Social media platforms also play a role in symbolic acculturation, reflecting identity expression and a desire for successful integration (Thorpe and Wheaton, 2021).

Communication technologies play a crucial role in negotiating changes during migration and resettlement (Thorpe and Wheaton, 2021). The virtual world facilitates emotional connections across borders, preserving a sense of unity for families experiencing forced migration (Robertson et al., 2016; Kutscher and Kress, 2018). Social media has become a tool for communication, information sharing, and resource exchange among geographically distant individuals, influencing local resettlement experiences (Marlowe, 2020). The process of sharing information in mobilized virtual communities impacts rapid dissemination within online filter bubbles and echo chambers (Urry, 2016; Pariser, 2011). Virtual technologies enable transnational socio-virtual groups, fostering common interests irrespective of cultural differences (Marlowe, 2020).

The ESRCI project aims to critically explore the education and social inclusion of Syrian and Iraqi refugee children and youth at pre-, compulsory, and upper secondary levels and the structures created for their learning and wellbeing in their social and educational settings. Pillar 3 specifically engages with social inclusion and aims to explore wellbeing, social relationships and positions of refugee children and youth, identity, and intersections. It aims to comprehend the ways in which young refugees adapt to unfamiliar social and cultural surroundings, with a particular focus on the influence of social media in promoting transcultural experiences. The research also examines the ideas of hybridity and superdiversity, investigating the interaction between physical and virtual platforms in the context of transcultural communities. The ultimate objective is to provide valuable insights into the complex social environments encountered by young refugees in Iceland.

Research questions

1. In what ways do young refugees in Iceland perceive and navigate new social and cultural environments, encountering different ideas and lifestyles? Additionally, does the use of social media platforms facilitate transculturality through communication and networking in these unfamiliar physical environments for young refugees?

1. To what extent do the concepts of hybridity and superdiversity contribute to our understanding of the experiences of young refugees in Iceland, particularly considering the interplay between physical and virtual platforms and their connections to transcultural societies.

Topic and theoretical framework

Previous research across the Irish (SFI, 2021), European (Archer et al., 2020; El Takach & Yacoubian, 2020) and international (Dickson et al., 2021) context has illustrated that young people generally have positive views of and are interested in science while in school. Despite this, many, especially those from underrepresented backgrounds, struggle to envision themselves as scientists (Archer, 2020). Some restrictive and possibly exclusionary perceptions about science and scientists persist within Ireland, the UK and other European countries (Brumovska et al., 2022; Christidou et al., 2019; Shimwell et al., 2023). These perceptions can act as a barrier to positive engagement with science, within the educational ‘pipeline’ or outside of it. Science capital, based on Bourdieu’s social and cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1990), is a construct that encapsulates all science-related knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and social contacts that a person may have (Archer et al., 2015). Since its conception, the theoretical lens of science capital has been applied to better understand science engagement in other countries such as Spain (Salvadó et al., 2021) and China (Du & Wong, 2019). The social justice-oriented pedagogy embedded in the Primary Science Capital Teaching Approach (PSCTA) focuses on changing the field of science education to become more equitable and personalised (Godec et al., 2017; Nag Chowdhuri et al., 2021). Currently there is little published research on how the PSCTA might be applied in a once-off, scientist-facilitated intervention and any potential impacts on young people’s perceptions of scientists.

Intervention description

The aim of the “Meet The Cell Explorer’s (CE) Scientist” intervention is to widen young people’s perceptions of what it means to be a scientist, challenge stereotypes associated with science and being a scientist, and therefore widen the reach of science to more students. The session also aims to contribute towards students’ social science capital by introducing them to a diverse range of local scientist role models, many with hobbies, interests, and backgrounds similar to themselves.

In the intervention, groups of 4-6 CE scientists visit 10-13 year old pupils in their school classrooms. During the hour-long session, scientists introduce themselves and engage in Q&A discussions in small groups of 3-6 young people per scientist, focusing on topics such as the scientist’s hobbies and interests, where they are from, their journey to becoming a scientist and their daily lives as scientists. Young people are given topic names to aid in focusing the discussion but are free to ask any questions they wish to the scientist in their small group, with an additional “ask anything” section at the end of the intervention. These topics aim to integrate the science capital dimensions of knowing someone in a science-related role, knowledge about the transferability of science, and science-related attitudes, values, and dispositions.

Cell Explorer's scientists comprise of volunteer undergraduate and postgraduate science students, and staff based at the university. The scientists receive specialized training to enhance their support for young people’s science capital and using the PSCTA. Through an online module and a 1.5 hour in-person training workshop, the scientists are trained in how to help young people identify their own funds of knowledge that may be useful as a scientist, to make links between the young people’s interests and science, and to address restrictive misconceptions about science and scientists.

Research objective

This study aims to explore the potential short-term effects of a once-off, scientist-facilitated intervention implementing the PSCTA on young people’s perceptions of science and scientists.

Research question

How, if at all, does a once-off, scientist-facilitated classroom intervention implementing elements of the PSCTA contribute towards supporting young people's science capital, specifically their perceptions of scientists?

The aim of this study is to examine upper secondary school students’ perceptions about careers on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) related fields, and to understand factors influencing their career choices. Despite the global need for STEM professionals, there is a persistent decline in students' interest in STEM studies and careers, especially in Europe (OECD, 2016; Osborne & Dillon, 2008; Potvin & Hasni, 2014). Various factors, both intrinsic and extrinsic, contribute to this decline, including socio-economic status, learning opportunities, attitude towards science, and limited knowledge of STEM careers (e.g., Holmegaard et al., 2014). Recognizing the multifaceted nature of these challenges, efforts to address declining interest include specially designed instructional interventions with integrated career-based perspectives to enhance students' understanding of STEM careers and boost interest in science (Drymiotou et al., 2021; Gago et al., 2005; OECD, 2016). lisää drymioutou

Social cognitive career theory (Lent et al., 1999) provides a framework for understanding how cognitive, social, and environmental factors interact to shape career choices and development over time. The theory emphasizes, for example, the role of self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, interests and goals, environmental influences, performance and choice expectancies, and contextual supports and barriers in shaping an individual's career choices and actions. Furthermore, previous research has shown that for example other people’s recognition and STEM identity (Ladachart et al., 2023; Nugent et al., 2015; Simpson & Bouhafa, 2020), receiving career information (Kaleva et al., 2023), preconceptions about STEM careers (Holmegaard et al., 2014) and instructional activities in school (Drymiotou et al., 2021) can influence adolescents’ STEM related career choices.

Upper secondary school experiences can significantly influence students' career aspirations, impacting their motivation and choices of science subjects and subsequent academic and career paths (Simpkins et al., 2006). Understanding students’ conceptions about science and STEM related careers is important. It can help teachers and other professionals to develop and implement better learning opportunities that enhance students' beliefs and understanding of STEM related fields. In the present study, the factors influencing upper secondary school students’ STEM career choices are examined through semi-structured interviews. The research questions are:

RQ1: What factors do students described as being influential for their career choices?

RQ2: What kind of conceptions do students have about science and STEM related fields?

My presentation will focus on self-study as a tool for the professional development of teacher educators. For the last 12 years I work as an interns’ supervisor during their teaching internship year. I am also a member of a teacher educator's action research workshop that is supported by MOFET (The National Institute for Research and Development in Education) and led by Michal Zellermayer (2019). As part of my participation in the teacher educator's action research workshop, I have been writing a weekly diary journal following each internship workshop session, to be read and discussed by my colleagues in the action research group. In every meeting we discuss the practical and theoretical conceptualizations of the events described in our journals. Through my journal I have developed the kind of self-awareness that is not based solely on reflection, but also on observing the mutual interactions between myself and the social fields of my activity. This process made me reconsider my practice. I developed a passion for writing. I felt that writing stimulated me to deepen and expands my learning and helped me to proceed more accurately in my work with my students. That feeling was supported by the writing of Judy Williams that "journaling as a self-study method helps researchers to keep the focus on the self in a self-study, while also considering the range of contextual factors that influence the process of professional becoming" (Williams, 2021, p.61).

The main issue that bothered me was how I should guide the interns in crossing the boundaries between the academy and the internship schools, in view of the fact that I do not see them in their schools. The interns cope with conflicts in their schools, with pupils, parents and staff. These conflicts lead them to be ambivalent about their decision to become a teacher. My challenge is to help them deal with these conflicts and to maintain their active participance in our workshop and in the internship schools.

In the action research group we were introduced to Cultural-historical-activity theory, a powerful tool for conceptualizing our practice. In my study I particularly focused on the writings of Etienne Wenger (1998/ 2010), who claims that engagement in a social practice is the fundamental process by which we learn and so develop our professional identity. From Wenger I learnt that knowledge is situated within the social practices of a community members, rather than something which exists “out there” in books. Wenger (1998), expresses the connections between two important concepts: participation and reification. Participation consists of the activity; the act of doing something or taking part, and the belonging that is established through connecting with other participants. Reification is the expression of knowledge though concrete artifacts, such as forms, symbols, stories, and concepts. These two concepts enabled me to discover the value of my practice and better understand how I can empower the intern’s participation in my workshop and their commitment to their school teaching. My self-study helped me identify the actions I take for reification and how they contribute to the participation of the interns in the workshop. I learnt that I tend to draw on my interns’ practical challenges. I try to strengthen their affiliation to the school by making them more aware of its culture and agenda. We go through problem-solving processes regarding administrative school demands. I urge them to initiate meaningful communication with their mentors and suggest that they rely more on horizontal collegial relationships with other schoolteachers. While doing so, I use reification. In my presentation I will demonstrate the acts of reification that I initiated and interns responses to them.

Research on the development of research capacity for teacher educators is limited and mixed. Kelchtermans et al. (2018) argue based on their study of teacher educators from Belgium, Ireland, Israel, the Netherlands, Norway, United Kingdom, and the USA that professional development (PD) for teacher educators should emphasize real research activities. However, a recent study in Israel (Guberman & Zuzovsky, 2022) found that in research capacity development among teacher educators, “the unintended result was the separation of teaching from research” (p. 369). In Kazakhstan, scholars have documented efforts and challenges at transforming research and publication capacity over the past thirty years in national policy and institutional practice among university science professors and students (Kuzhabekova, 2022) and schoolteachers (Ayubayeva & McLaughlin, 2023), but not teacher educators to date.

Along with research reform in higher education, the Kazakhstani government has actively supported reform in STEM education. Moreover, as part of trilingual education reforms, the English language is viewed as a science language that facilitates integration into the global economy, and STEM subjects are to be taught through the English language. However, recent research shows that STEM teachers neither display high-quality or innovative skills in lesson planning and implementation of STEM (Goodman et al., 2023), nor are fully ready to teach STEM subjects in English (Manan et al., 2023). Whether teacher educators are prepared to support future STEM teachers in English in Kazakhstan remains an empirical question.

To address the twin issues of research capacity and pedagogical capacity building of teacher educators in Kazakhstani pedagogical universities, the authors present a study designed to answer the following main research question: How can action research contribute to development of new STEM and multilingual education practices in Kazakhstani teacher education institutions?

The data collection and analysis are framed through the combined lenses of action research and self-efficacy theory. Action research (Pine, 2009) consists of four phases of professional inquiry: 1) planning a change in practice and a means of documenting the change; 2) implementing the change; 3) observe the changes and consequences of the change; 4) reflecting on the process and consequences in order to consider new changes and action research designs. Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997, as cited in Usher et al., 2023) refers to one’s beliefs about their capacity to perform tasks or skills, beliefs which are shaped by internal and external factors. Previous research has found the utility of using action research to promote self-efficacy of pre-service teachers (e.g., Cabaroglu, 2014) and in-service teachers (e.g., Kinskey, 2018) as part of their professional development. However, it has not been documented whether action research may facilitate self-efficacy in Kazakhstani teacher educators for whom both research methods and pedagogical practices may be relatively new.

Education policy reforms in Armenia enacted in 2021 have established a new state curriculum, a new structure and content of continued professional development (CPD) process which has a mandatory and voluntary options, and a qualification ranking system. These reforms have incorporated the notion of the ‘teacher as a researcher’ into the educational discourse in Armenia. This study examines how the notion of ‘teacher-researcher’ is conceptualised in the new education policy documents and how education policymakers plan to operationalise that concept.

Lawrence Stenhouse (1975), who is credited for developing the concept of teacher as researcher, asks teachers to engage in a ‘process model’ of curriculum innovation where professional and curricular development become the same enterprise. Stenhouse’s seminal conception of a ‘researching teacher’ will inform our examination of the Armenian education reforms. The central principle in Stenhouse’s work in curriculum development and research is his view of teachers as practitioners who, like artists, can improve their art through the practice of that art and whose professional judgment and imagination are strengthened by careful scrutiny of themselves and other artists at work. Curriculum development is a way of focusing the teacher’s inquiry in an experimental manner on important problems in teaching and learning; research is the process of inquiry by which teachers analyse and learn from practice. In Stenhouse's world, the right to play a part in the criticism and construction of professional knowledge is returned to the teacher, and students are persuaded to accept some responsibility for the authority of their knowing and their right to know.

Countries that have succeeded in making teaching an attractive profession have often done so not just through pay, but by raising the status of teaching, offering real career prospects, and giving teachers responsibility as professionals and leaders of reform. This requires teacher education that helps teachers become innovators and researchers in education, not just ‘deliverers’ of a curriculum (Schleicher, 2011). However, teacher research by itself is not enough to improve education, a more reflective and interpretive stance is required to enhance teacher professionalism (Leeman and Wardekker (2014), together with regaining a space for professional judgment (Biesta, 2015).

The most successful countries educationally make teaching an attractive, high-status profession and provide training for teachers to become educational innovators and researchers who have responsibility for reform. There is a need for professionalism in teaching and the professionalisation process by which one becomes a professional. Teacher research is an important element of both processes (Hollingsworth, 1992).

The lens that this research is looking at teachers and their professionalism is different from the “what works”, agenda that is to say, telling teachers what to do (e.g., Hattie, 2008). “What works” or evidence-based education limits the opportunities for educational practitioners to make judgments in a way that is sensitive to and relevant to their own contextualised settings (Biesta, 2007). Therefore, the lens that we look at in this research deals with teacher professionalism including its core elements such as agency and autonomy so that teachers are seen as content developers, creators, researchers, and artists (Stenhouse, 1975, 1983, 1985; Ruduck, 1988; Eisner, 1975a, b).

The research questions are as follows:

1. How is the concept of ‘teacher as a researcher’ conceptualised in education policy documents?
2. How Armenian educational policies are in line with European policy trends regarding teacher as a researcher concept?
3. How do the policy makers see the concept and its operationalisation?

Emerging variations of action research, lesson study, reflective practice and teacher research grow out of values, purposes and perspectives of different stakeholders at different times. From the perspective of an individual teacher these practices are conceptualised as a process of understanding and improving one’s own teaching methods; from the school-wide perspective, it is to form a collaborative learning with an aim to create local shared knowledge and building the trust among teachers, supported by the conscious commitment of school administration.

Despite being in the early stages of implementation in Kazakhstani comprehensive schools, with its introduction only in 2016, action research has become an integral part of the teacher appraisal system and teacher qualification process. Kazakhstani teachers aspiring to be recognised as “teacher-researchers” and “master teachers” are required to engage with action research. This innovation signifying a notable departure from traditional beliefs and practices in the education system. However, there is a gap between the expectations outlined in policy documents and teachers’ understanding of action research, as it is not adequately covered in teacher education and professional development courses struggle to keep pace with the changes. Hence, the success and sustainability of these changes face challenges unless the necessary conditions are established in schools.

In 2019, the School Hub for Action Research in Education (SHARE) project was introduced in 22 comprehensive schools in Astana city, aimed at establishing a school hub to share practices and ideas, fostering teacher leadership in development through action research. The SHARE was established on four main concepts: 1) employing action research methodology to help teachers to reflect about daily practices, 2) facilitating understanding of changes in teaching and learning, 3) fostering the development of teacher leadership, 4) establishing conditions for collaborative professional learning.

The project was led by Professor Colleen McLaughlin, Emirates Professor of the University of Cambridge, Kate Evans, Ex-principal of Bottisham Village School, and Dr Nazipa Ayubayeva, an advocate of action research in Kazakhstan. The project was supported by the Mayor of Astana city and was coordinated by the Astana Department of Education’s Center for Education Modernisation. The successful implementation of the project was facilitated by three-year (2020-2023) financial commitment from Astana Department of Education. Additionally, the project coordination, led by Roza Shayakhanova, co-authored this article, from the Center for Education Modernisation, played a pivotal role in building effective communication among schools with diverse expectations and commitments. Moreover, an essential requirement of the SHARE was the compulsory involvement of school principles. However, unforeseen changes, introduced in 2021, in policy regulations governing the rotation of schools’ principles had a substantial impact on the project. In the third year of SHARE, only five principals retained their positions in their original schools; three principals were reassigned to schools involved in SHARE; another three principals who had been rotated to new schools became ambassadors of the initiative and contributed to the expansion of SHARE by joining the initiative; yet another two completely new schools joined SHARE motivated by the interests of their principals, who in turn had learned about the SHARE at the exchange-conferences. Although, this organic growth in participation reflects the positive impact of networking in the education community, there are few schools that have chosen not to continue with the SHARE beyond the initial three-year commitment.

As such, it was crucial for the authors of this paper to explore the teacher-participants’ perception about the sustainability of the project beyond the financial commitment and school principals’ decision. This exploration is essential for assessing the project impact on establishing a sustainable network of action researchers who collaborate, share practices, and contribute to ongoing teacher professional development.

Introduction

In recent years, due to the continuous improvement of global education quality, teachers have been given higher expectations. The responsibilities and workload of teachers have also increased in the short term, while their rest time has been continuously reduced due to heavy teaching tasks (Hargreaves, 2003). As a result, teachers experience feelings of anxiety under long-term pressure, which can affect their teaching work and even lead to professional burnout (Jennett et al., 2003). Research has shown that environmental conditions can affect an individual's sense of self-efficacy (Schunk & Pajares, 2002). Furthermore, a teacher's self-efficacy can further influence various aspects of their professional development, such as their use of teaching strategies and attitude toward innovation (Gibbs, 2003; Klaeijsen et al., 2018).

This study utilized a quantitative approach and focused on primary school teachers in Chongqing, China. It investigated the perceived school environment, anxiety, and self-efficacy of these teachers to explore the impact of different aspects of the school environment on teacher anxiety, as well as the dynamic changes in their emotions under the influence of self-efficacy.

Theoretical Framework

The school environment as perceived by teachers refers to their experience of school life and reflects the goals, values, interpersonal relationships, teaching and learning practices, and organizational structure of the school. Previous studies have categorized school environment into five aspects: collaborative teaching, teacher-student relationships, school resources, decision-making involvement, and teaching innovation (Johnson et al.,2007).

Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy reflects an individual's belief in their ability to perform a specific behavior or activity at a certain level before engaging in it (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). Teachers' self-efficacy primarily stems from four sources: mastery experience、vicarious experience、social persuasions、physiological and affective states. Among them, the mastery of experience mainly comes from individual's past performance and achievements, which is the most influential source of self-efficacy.

Emotions are an important component of individual's psychological well-being and are commonly present in teachers' teaching activities, influencing teacher burnout, teacher turnover, and teaching quality. Teacher emotions include enjoyment, anger, anxiety, pride, guilt and shame, boredom, pity, etc (Frenzel et al., 2009). The study primarily focuses on anxiety, specifically the anticipation of future danger, which includes cognitive components such as attention, worry, or problem-solving, as well as physiological components like sweating and insomnia. According to the Control-Value Theory, if a teacher feels that they only have partial (moderate) control over an event and they are afraid of failure, they will experience anxiety.

Research has shown that pre-service teachers experience an increase in their self-efficacy after gaining early teaching experience (Morris et al., 2017; Tschannen-Moran & McMaster, 2009). However, novice teachers may spend a significant amount of time focusing on their own teaching and have limited participation in collaboration with other teachers, making them more prone to anxiety (Chapman, 1988). Previous studies have explored the relationship between teachers' overall perception of school environment and their self-efficacy, but there is limited research on the specific impact of different aspects of school environment on teacher anxiety and the relationship between teacher self-efficacy and their emotional state.

Based on theories and previous empirical results, this study puts forward the following hypotheses.

H1: Collaborative teaching, teacher-student relationships, and innovative teaching significantly and positively influence teachers' self-efficacy.

H2: Collaborative teaching, teacher-student relationships, school resources, and involvement in decision-making significantly negatively affect teacher anxiety, while teaching innovation positively affects teacher anxiety.

This paper explores the challenges and affordances of a national-scale scheme, funded by the professional regulator for teachers in the Republic of Ireland, which was designed to partner university-based researchers with schools to support teachers’ engagement with research on problems of practice.

Engagement with research has long been a widely-held ambition for the teaching profession (BERA-RSA 2014; OECD 2022), but routes to developing capacity for research engagement have been difficult given the competing demands of teaching and the cultural norms with respect to research use (Malin et al. 2020).

There has been extensive writing for over a century on a “theory-practice” or “research-practice” gap (Dewey 1904; Korthagen & Kessels, 1999; McGarr et al. 2017). Teachers can perceive a hierarchy where theory is ‘aloof within the ivory tower, espousing ideals and the principles that govern them’ (Smagorinsky, Cook, & Johnson, 2003, p. 1399), and practice has little reciprocal impact on theory (Knight, 2014). There is a recognition that one element to resolving this gap is recognising the dialogic relationship between research/theory and practice. That is to suggest that teachers’ engagement with research ought to be rooted in relevant problems of practice that teachers are motivated to address, and that evidence-informed practice involves contextual adaptation of research; sometimes known as practical theorising (McIntyre 2005). Such practical theorising in professional learning can be supported through relationships with university-based researchers (Burn & Harries 2021).

There is good evidence to support the benefits of collaboration between teachers and university-based researchers (Jones et al. 2022). Researchers in universities are well positioned to provide support to a school if they are well matched on the area of expertise relevant to the school’s interest area or problem of practice (McLaughlin & Black-Hawkins 2007). Of course, the professional realities of teachers and academic researchers are quite different. Their skills sets and needs will also differ. The differences may be complementary and mutually supportive (Cai et al. 2018), but there also needs to be attention paid to how collaborative endeavours address their differing professional needs.

The ongoing sustainability of partnerships also requires attention; Often such collaborative projects are funded through research grants awarded to university-based researchers or universities into which teachers or schools are recruited (e.g., Hamza et al 2017). It is far rarer to have a funded programme at a national scale to support teachers to explore problems of practice in partnership with an experienced educational researcher but, where these have existed, the impacts have been positive. For example, Simons et al. (2003) observed overwhelming testimony of teachers in the value of the experience, a rediscovery of professional confidence, a growth in familiarity with research practices situated in teachers’ own contexts.

The policy direction in the Republic of Ireland has placed increasing importance on the use of research in practice (Murphy 2020). As part of this, the professional regulator for teachers (the Teaching Council) has implemented a range of initiatives to support teachers’ engagement with and in research. This paper explores one of these initiatives, the Researchers in Residence Scheme (RiRS). The scheme was intended to promote teachers’ ongoing learning through exploring existing research in their school context. This may, for example, be through interrogating, synthesising, sharing, and applying research in their practice. Each school was partnered with a university-based researcher to support their engagement with research. This paper reports initial findings from a project which sought to understand the challenges and affordances of the RiRS scheme for all stakeholders involved. The findings have the potential to be informative across European contexts where there is potential to initiate funding schemes and partnerships.

In what ways can «School-based professional development» (SBPF) be structured to ensure that the participants feel relevance, ownership, and opportunities to influence the content and design of the initiatives?

In a metropolitan network with 75 schools, this became a relevant question. A model for school development was needed, where the schools who needed professional development (PD) could participate within a reasonable time horizon. A group with partners from the university and the schools was established. Based on theories about school development (Robinson et al., 2009; Starkey et al., 2009; Timperley et al., 2007; Goodlad, 1988) they designed a model, “the resource group model”, to meet the network's goals. The aim of this study is to identify success factors in this model in a large-scale SBPD-project.

PD is a central part of the school's daily work, but there is disagreement about what the best means to achieve this are (Mausethagen & Helstad, 2023). While previous PD-schemes in Norway have been based on a model where a form of "competence transfer" was to take place from knowledge providers (universities) to knowledge receivers (teachers), the new model was based on co-creation in established partnerships between schools and universities (Meld.St. 21(2016-17)). SBPD should take place in schools where teachers and leaders develop knowledge about teaching and learning in the local school context (Postholm, 2018). An important aspect of this new thinking on school development is to meet the needs experienced by those who are closest to the students in the classroom.

Internationally, there has been a lot of research into factors that contribute to successful PD in schools. Several studies show that the leaders’ involvement is crucial for the success of collective PD (e.g. Stoll & Louis, 2017; Robinson, 2014). While it's important that the school leadership is involved in development projects, it is challenging if the leader must run the processes alone. This concerns that the initiative and chosen theme for the PD can be experienced as ”coming from above"; it is recommended to involve teachers (Postholm et al., 2018). Spillane (2006) uses the term "distributed leadership" for processes where the principal involves more than the formal leader group at the school, both in the design, implementation and leadership of development projects.

The schools that wanted to participate could choose between five different themes, maximum 5 schools per theme, and these were selected based on reported needs of the schools in the metropolitan network. The model is designed based on theories and evaluations of previous PD-projects.

The model presumes that each school participating in PD must establish a resource group (RG), consisting of teachers with a special interest in the topic they have chosen, and at least one person from the school management. The groups should be local promoters of the development work at their schools, and should work as a link between colleagues at the schools and professionals from the university.

A key aspect of the resource group model is that participation takes place over time. The 1^st semester has common content and organization for all schools, and its main purpose is to prepare the RG to lead PD at their own school (Spillane, 2006). The 2^nd to 4^th semesters are devoted to topic-specific gatherings for the competence packages, with mandatory intermediate work at the schools.

The aim of this study is to respond to the following reseach question:

What experiences do the RG and the university employees in the metropolitan network have with the various elements in the resource group model, and what can these experiences tell us about which factors are important for success in a large-scale school development process?

The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between collective teacher efficacy (CTE) and teacher self-efficacy (TSE) by a longitudinal and multilevel analysis.

To respond current complex educational circumstances, CTE is one of the most reliable factors of a school’s effectiveness in achieving its objectives as a group by leveraging each other’s strengths and compensating for one another’s limitations (Klassen et al., 2010; Tschannen-Moran & Barr, 2004). CTE is defined as “the collective self-perception that teachers in a given school make an educational difference to their students over and above the educational impact of their homes and communities” (Tschannen-Moran & Barr, 2004, p. 190). Because of the nature of teacher efficacy, previous studies have indicated that CTE is closely related to TSE (Cansoy & Parlar, 2018; Ninković & Knežević Florić, 2018). As many researchers suggest that CTE and TSE are mutually reinforcing, educational organisation research highlights that CTE arises when teachers cooperate to solve problems and act towards the same goals (Goddard, 2001). However, in practice, school leaders and policy makers could be indecisive about whether they should focus on development of individual teachers first or school as an organisation first. This is because the causal relationship between CTE and TSE has not been clearly revealed.

It is easy to assume the path from TSE to CTE. An organisation or a group of individuals with high abilities can create a strong organisation and have confidence in the organisation (Caprara et al., 2003). When members of an organisation act with individual confidence and achieve success, the motivation of the entire organisation can increase, thereby enhancing collective efficacy as well. Therefore, teachers with high TSE may have the potential to form collaborative school organisations, thereby leading to enhancing CTE.

On the other hand, some researchers argue the path from CTE to TSE (Goddard et al., 2001; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007). Meyer et al. (2020) note that CTE is likely related to teachers' collaborative behaviour. When educational organisations succeed in working together, teachers gain confidence, higher motivation, and engage more effectively in their work (Yada et al., 2022). In addition, it is known that CTE affects individual performance when task interdependency is high in organisational research (Katz-Navon & Erez, 2005), and schools can be considered high interdependency organisations (Moolenaar et al., 2012). TSE is enhanced through the strong belief in the ability of the organisation to accomplish high interdependent tasks that individuals cannot achieve alone. Being part of a collective efficacious school could provide more opportunities to experience professional collective action, which can enhance individual performance and improve TSE.

However, there some issues have been identified in prior studies on CTE. First, there is a discrepancy regarding whether TSE or CTE predicts the other. Second, there is a paucity of longitudinal and multilevel examinations between CTE and TSE, which enables more precise predictive relationship analyses. Sample design, size and methodological limitations hinder the longitudinal and multilevel examinations although studies have assumed a path from TSE to CTE in previous studies (Cansoy & Parlar, 2018; Ninković & Florić, 2018). Therefore, we set the research questions as follows:

RQ1: How is CTE related to TSE at individual level?

RQ2: How is CTE related to TSE at school level?

Organizational culture consists of the values, beliefs, and worldview that shape individuals’ behavioral patterns within an organization and is expressed through shared language, symbols, norms, and established guidelines (Teasley, 2017). Schools are organizations that share educational goals defined externally by the community or government authorities (Berman et al., 2019). However, each school has its own organizational culture which defines how members go about achieving these goals. The school’s assessment culture is part of its general organizational culture, reflecting attitudes and beliefs concerning autonomy, transparency, and partnership. It includes the reasons and the goals for doing assessments and the climate in which these assessments are carried out, which in turn will influence how assessment is perceived.

School organizational assessment culture may be seen as a continuum ranging between a summative-measurement culture on one end, and a formative-assessment culture on the other end. Summative-measurement culture is referred to as “assessment of learning” (Earl & Katz, 2006), focusing on decision-making, accountability, and demonstration of authority. Quantitative methodologies and external measures are generally employed to collect information. In contrast, formative-assessment culture emphasizes growth, development, and improvement (“assessment for learning”) (Earl & Katz, 2006). It is anchored in an interpretive, critical perspective and espouses a pluralistic and individualistic concept of reality requiring information reflecting multiple perspectives that is interpreted through dialogue and collaboration (e.g., Shepard, 2000). Assessment is incorporated into school life as a crucial mechanism for promoting organizational learning for the advancement of educational goals (Torres & Preskill, 2001; Wendy & Wenyan, 2013).

The study focuses on teacher assessment in relation to school organizational assessment culture. One aim was to investigate whether teachers’ perceptions of their school’s organizational assessment culture is congruent with their perceptions of teacher assessment at their school. A second aim was to examine the degree to which exposure to different school organizational assessment cultures is related to teachers’ ideas concerning the components of an ideal formative teacher assessment model in line with views that professional development of teachers should be the primary aim of teacher assessment (e.g., Flores & Derrington, 2017). Understanding how the school’s organizational assessment culture is related to teachers’ perceptions and opinions regarding teacher assessment, can be useful to both school administrators and educational authorities interested in strengthening the use of teacher assessment for the purpose of achieving educational goals.

The study was conducted in Israel where formal teacher assessment was mandated beginning in 2010 as part of a wage agreement between the Ministry of Education and the elementary school teachers’ union. The agreement transferred teacher assessment for administrative decisions from external inspectors to school principals and strongly promoted the implementation of routine formative teacher assessment. The intention was to improve the quality of instruction in schools and to foster teachers’ professional identity. Principals participated in in-service training to prepare them for their task and acquaint them with procedures and rubrics which had been developed to define criteria and levels of expected performance.

Only teacher assessment results for administrative decisions are reported to the Ministry of Education, which is the final authority for awarding licensure and approving salary advancement, meaning that only summative teacher assessment is monitored. Thus, it is not surprising to learn that research in Israel has shown that schools greatly differ in the manner and extent to which formative teacher assessment is conducted, and that principals’ leadership styles (Nashef, 2023), their assessment training, experience, and perceptions of the benefits of teacher evaluation (Fresko & Levy-Feldman, 2023) are all related to this variation.

The professionalization of school leaders is frequently developed and debated all over the world. Almost all OECD countries and EU member states have invested massively in school leader professional development and training (Huber, 2010), and a recent research overview suggests that such investments have enormous potential for high quality education and student learning (Grissom et al, 2021). One important reason for these investments is the growing recognition of school leaders as essential for the quality of teaching and learning in schools (Bøje & Frederiksen 2019). School leaders are increasingly perceived as key agents for the quality of teaching and learning, teacher professional development but also for school improvement, school reform and capacity building (Rönnström, 2021).

However, the meaning of ‘professional’ and ‘professionalization’ vary between a plurality of contexts and connoisseurs, but there are some converging tendencies in recent developments and debates. Some use the term ‘professional’ mainly as an indicator of being successful or good at one’s job which is reflected in research explicating the meaning of successful or effective school leadership (See Drysdale & Gurr, 2017; Hallinger, 2011; Leithwood, 2021; Leithwood et al, 2004; Robinson et al, 2009). Others use the term to indicate membership a of group of professional practitioners or a learning community, or as being a co-creator of communities of practitioners within or linked to schools (See Zachrisson and Johansson, 2010; Chirichello, 2010). There are also researchers who reserve the term for membership in qualified and closed communities as depicted in the sociology of professions. The latter researchers commonly argue that school leaders run the risk of de-professionalization despite massive investments in professional development and training (Bøje & Frederiksen 2019).

However, the urgency of recent school leader professional development investments is not primarily linked to professionalization in the traditional sociological sense; rather, it´s linked to the increasing globalization, economization, rationalization and re-organization of the public sector in general and the education sector in particular (Pashiardis and Brauckman, 2019; Ringarp and Rönnström, 2021; Hood, 1995). In our hyper modern world, changing landscapes of professionalization and professions are emerging. They are growing in importance and they are important to questions about the meaning of school leader’s professional being and becoming. Consequently, we can no longer grasp recent professionalization and professional development investments by exclusively focusing on skills, capabilities, professional membership or criteria drawn from standard textbooks in the sociology of the professions. There is a need for new frameworks and alternative ways of understanding the professionalization of school leaders in order to understand the scope, character and urgency of school leader professional development and training in present time.

By discussing and analyzing the professionalization of school leaders in Sweden, this paper aims to contribute to the field of Continuing Professional Development (CPD). We will illuminate an ongoing global movement and converging strategies among many European nations with regard to the professionalization of school leaders, and we will discuss their scope, character and urgency. We will in depth discuss recent school leader professional development and training in Sweden and how these affects the professional identities of school leaders. Finally, we will argue that the school leader profession is steadily growing into an organizational profession in Sweden and elsewhere (Evetts, 2011; Ringarp and Rönnström, 2021). This is important but rarely recognized in recent investments, debates and research on school leader professional development. Organizational professionalization differs from occupational professionalization (as the latter is explicated within the sociology of the professions), and this development has consequences for the knowledge-base, training and autonomy of school leaders and how they are expected to relate to other professionals and their professional development in schools.

International agendas to reform education systems seeking to improve student outcomes has placed an increased attention on school improvement over the past four decades. The role of school leadership has been spotlighted as a crucial factor in driving such reforms and improvements within education systems (Leithwood, 2019). Furthermore, the evolving changes in education systems, policy, and curricula have placed increased and changing expectations on school leaders (Leithwood et al., 2019). Principal/head teachers are overburdened with responsibilities including financial and human resource management, alongside leadership for teaching and learning with the school (OECD, 2008, 2009, 2013). There has been a growing concern expressed by policy makers around high attrition and turnover rates in school leadership and a decline in applications to replace such turnover (IPPN, 2022; OECD, 2008; Tobin, 2023). Such hesitancy to apply for these roles is due to the increasingly demanding roles of the principal/head teacher that are observed by teachers in the system (Sugrue, 2015). In addition, it has also been found that reluctance to apply is also due to lack of support and insufficient preparation for the role (Burke et al., 2022; DeMatthews et al., 2019). In responding to the issues presented above, the past two decades have witnessed a policy turn to make leadership more sustainable, alongside an agenda to enhance the quality through supports such as professional learning and mentoring (De Matthews et al., 2021; Stynes & McNamara, 2019; Ummanel et al., 2016). A call by scholars and practitioners has flagged the need for principals/headteachers to be provided with time and capacity to focus on practices that are required to improve teaching and learning (IPPN, 2023; King et al., 2023). In addition, there has been a call for schools to be more autonomous through processes such as self-evaluation, coupled with distributed leadership alongside efforts to make the role of school leadership more attractive (Stynes & McNamara, 2019). Despite the above attempts to improve school leadership on the island of Ireland, the challenges of retaining and recruiting school leaders remains in both jurisdictions. While efforts have been made north and south to make schools more autonomous, evidenced in processes such as school self-evaluation and an increased attention towards distributed leadership within policy, a number of reports continue to raise concerns about the sustainability of principals/headteachers workload responsibilities (Murphy, 2023; Sugrue, 2015). In addition, the reports have also flagged that applications for principal/headteacher roles remain significantly low, and the heavy workload and demands have been attributed as one of the key factors.

Given the documented challenges internationally, alongside challenges to date on the island of Ireland, this research examines how early-career principal/headteachers are navigating the role. The voice of early-career leaders has gained wider attention in recent years, given that it can be a daunting transition from teacher to school leader, particularly where the expectations of their role significantly alter. Within this new occupation, they are tasked with driving leadership within the school setting. Yet, there is little research to date in both jurisdictions that has significantly unpacked their daily lived experiences as they navigate these roles and responsibilities (Murphy, 2023). Thus, our commissioned research delves directly into this. Our research is anchored further by exploring why they transitioned into the role, underpinned by a theoretical framework of occupational socialisation. Specifically, this framework draws on the research of Spillane and Lee (2014), which explores how “how novice principals become socialized into their new occupation in a particular school organization” (p. 434).

In light of Kazakhstan's aim to build its national identity and increase its global competitiveness, enabling teachers to actively participate in developing and implementing educational policies is pivotal to the success of the government’s initiatives (OECD, 2014a). This is because teachers can act as key mediators of social change (OECD, 2005). There is therefore a need to re-consider the system’s approach to educational reform. The current approach, with its focus on a centralized bureaucracy, has been criticized for being weakly coordinated and lacking communication with the periphery (Bridges et al., 2014, p. 276). As a result, there is little power or autonomy at the local school level where school directors still exist in the system whilst “all the important decisions are taken elsewhere” (Frost & Kambatyrova, 2019). In such conditions, there exists little space for local initiatives and creative practices leading to the teachers’ voicelessness and exclusion. In order to address this, It has been suggested that teachers in Kazakhstan should be provided the opportunity to lead initiatives and be supported in their endeavours (Yakavets et al., 2017a).

This calls for extending teachers’ leadership capacity through providing support for their ongoing professional learning and creating conditions for their agency and voice. This is particularly important as teachers in Kazakhstan have more recently been proactive in translating new policies into their classrooms, despite the bureaucracy, top-down reform, and the lack of communication with the center (Bridges et al., 2014). The critical question is how to mobilize teachers’ leadership capacity to facilitate educational reform in Kazakhstan.

Non-positional teacher leadership (NPTL)

Conceptualizing the notion of teacher leadership (TL) from the non-positional perspective led to the emergence of the Leadership for Learning (LfL) framework. The LfL framework considers leadership as a practice that can be exercised by every member of the school through ongoing learning, creating conditions for learning, engaging in dialogue, sharing leadership roles, and taking responsibility at the personal, school, and society level (MacBeath & Dempster, 2008). The LfL framework views TL as both an individual and a collective agency, which includes “influencing and serving others, taking the initiative and making decisions for the greater good, whilst modelling learning and being sensitive to context” (Swaffield & MacBeath, 2009, p. 38). This approach puts democratic values and moral purpose at the core of leadership. Leadership is perceived as a “right and responsibility rather than […] a gift or burden” and hence, can be exercised by all stakeholders including headteachers, teachers, students, and parents (p. 44). This definition allows leadership to be viewed as a practice that can be used as a tool for releasing teacher’s leadership potential (Dempster & MacBeath, 2009). This is particularly important in the context of Kazakhstan schools where the knowledge of leadership is often limited to the system of official roles and positions.

In contrast to the positional TL, the non-positional teacher leadership (NPTL) approach views leadership as an entitlement of all practitioners regardless of their roles or positions to become active participants of educational improvement at the classroom, school, and system level (Frost & Harris, 2003; Bangs & Frost, 2016). Central to NPTL is the idea that, when the right conditions are created, teachers can take strategic actions and initiate and lead change regardless of their positions or roles (MacBeath & Dempster, 2008; Durrant & Holden, 2006; Ramahi & Eltemamy, 2014; Bangs & Frost, 2016). Therefore, the focal point of the NPTL is the development and building of teacher capacity to exercise leadership. As such, it is not mere wishful thinking, but a strategy directed towards system-wide educational improvement.

The concept of principals’ professional socialisation (e.g., Cruz-Gonzalez et al., 2021; Bøje & Frederiksen, 2021) and professional identity has received increased attention in educational research in recent decades (e.g., Crow, Day & Møller, 2017; Nordholm et al., 2023; Ritacco & Bolivar, 2019; Tubin, 2017). Becoming a school leader, as articulated by Bøje and Frederiksen (2021), often signifies a departure from a prior professional identity, typically that of a teacher. Bush (2018) argues that the principal’s role differs from a teacher's. He discusses three different phases of socialisation: (1) aspiring leaders require professional socialisation in preparing to become a principal; (2) they need to change their identity from teacher to principal – a process of personal socialisation; and (3) they need a period of organisational socialisation, learning to lead in a specific school. In-service preparation programs, such as the Swedish National Principal Training Program (NPTP), commonly serve as a central dimension in the professional socialisation of novice school principals.

Building a solid professional identity as a principal has proven necessary for successful leadership and positively impacting results (Ritacco & Bolivar, 2019). Other studies have highlighted that a strong identity can be important for principals to navigate complex situations (Saarukka, 2017). There are several studies with arguments for the importance of continuing research on the construction of leadership identity in principals (Cruz-González et al. (2021), focusing on the barriers and crises they encounter. To address this issue internationally and thus improve the quality of schools, leaders with solid professional identities must be nurtured while acknowledging the influence of politics and context. Another study by Crow and Møller (2017) proposes avenues for future research, emphasising that understanding school leaders' identities can contribute to leadership development. Exploring the influence of cultural, historical, and policy factors on identity development provides a robust foundation for creating leadership preparation and development programs that recognise the complex leadership necessary in uncertain times. Building on this perspective, Whiteman et al. (2015) advocate for leadership preparation programs to incorporate the development of critical reflection and dialogue skills as integral components. Engaging in critical reflection through methods like case studies, role plays, and simulations can assist principals in understanding their identities and honing skills to leverage them in building trust.

In Sweden, the mandatory in-service NPTP is offered for the first time when the participant has a position as a principal, preschool principal, or deputy principal (Brauckmann et al., 2020). The program is a 3-year mandatory in-service program with three courses: school law and governance, governing with objectives and results, school leadership and peer mentoring with professional peers during the training (Jerdborg, 2023).

The potential of peer mentoring in groups to develop novice principals’ professionalisation and leadership identity is evident (e.g. Aas & Vavik, 2015; Styf et al., 2020). Aas and Vavik (2015) suggest that leaders develop greater confidence in their leadership role through personal and contextual feedback from other leaders. Their study focuses on how group coaching can contribute to professional development and construct leadership identity. This paper focuses on novice principals’ peer mentoring for professional socialisation while participating in the NPTP. As an integral part of this program, principals discuss professional dilemmas with small groups of peers to support professional socialisation and leadership identity (Styf et al., 2020). This study explores novice principals’ professional socialisation and leadership identity in Sweden while participating in the mandatory NPTP. Two research questions guide the study:

1. How do novice principals depict peer mentoring as support for professional socialisation from a personal, positional, and professional perspective?
2. How can peer mentoring support professional socialisation and contribute to developing novice principals’ leadership identity?

School leaders experience numerous school policy and school development challenges under the pressure of a complex social context (Plavčan, 2020). Furthermore, they are pressured by their societal duty to provide quality education (Gurr & Drysdale, 2020). To best perform this challenging task, school leaders would benefit from the support and input from peers within a sounding panel as well as from concrete policy stimuli that encourage quality and innovation (Vekeman et al., 2022). Inter-school networks can also provide a significant added value (Brown & Poortman, 2018; Harris & Jones, 2021), as they increasingly encourage schools to engage in structural collaboration (Brown & Flood, 2020; Levin et al., 2020; Rincón-Gallardo & Fullan, 2016). In Flanders, school communities offer such an opportunity for collaboration.

Building quality partnerships between the school leaders of a school community is not self-evident (Azorín et al., 2020; Harris & Jones, 2021). Because of its multidimensional and multilevel character, it is difficult to define, develop, and operationalize a PLC (Antinluoma et al., 2021). How do we initiate and sustainably support them? What difference does a professional development program initiating and supporting professional learning communities (PLCs) for inter-school collaboration make in terms of depth of (peer) learning and longevity?

Research on methodologies to intensify collaboration within existing inter-school networks is limited (Chapman, 2013). We examined how PLCs as a mode of formal collective learning (Schelfhout, 2017) develop within existing school networks throughout a professional development trajectory (PDT). We explored the perceived (learning) outcomes and which variables influence longer-term sustainable development.

The PLCs originated both in the context of school communities (formally government-based) and of self-selected inter-school networks, allowing a comparison between two organizational forms of school networks.

Hattie (2012) points out that leadership makes the second biggest difference in learners’ outcomes. This paper aims to explore how mentoring and coaching can enable school leaders to develop through professional learning conversations. Connor and Pokora (2016) point out that coaching and mentoring are learning relationships though which leaders work collaboratively. Hargreaves and O’Connor (2018) highlight that collaborative professionalism can make a profound difference in developing learning conversations. If school leadership is important for the benefit of learners' outcomes, and staff's ability to flourish, effective learning relationships and conversations need to be embedded in the professional learning of leaders, especially at a time of uncertainty, to ensure that positive ways forward are developed. This paper aims to explore aspects of mentoring and coaching conversations that can enable leaders to flourish.

Weick (1995) outlines the importance of sense making and Macklin (2020) emphasises that leaders often are required to make sense of their teams or policy directives, and give sense at the same time to enable teams o move forward. However, the process of sense making is often taking place in isolation for school leaders. Coaching and mentoring provide a safe collaborative professional (Hargreaves and O’Connor, 2018) space where leaders can develop their strategic approaches through learning conversations, to enable them to support their teams. Especially at a time of uncertainty, sense making and strategic leadership skills are important to develop through mentoring and coaching as an intervention to develop leaders to support their teams and organisations effectively.

The paper aims to analyse the professionalisation process of adult educators involved in the recognition of prior learning (RPL), in Portugal. The analysis presented is the result of the synthesis of the results obtained in a research within the scope of a doctoral degree in Education.

In Europe, the professionalisation of the adult education field has triggered a debate, mainly since 2000, and subsequently with the publication of the document Action Plan on Adult Learning: it is always a good time to learn by the European Commission in 2007 (Zarifis & Papadimitriou, 2015). This document sets out the control mechanisms to be implemented by the Member States in order to achieve greater efficiency in the development and monitoring of their adult education systems. In many European countries, the education of adult educators lacks regulation, and highlight the absence of qualification standards and a common competence framework (Bernhardsson & Lattke, 2012; Sava, 2011). In order to promote the professionalisation of adult educators, instruments have been developed at the European level. An example is the Curriculum globALE, a cross-cultural core curriculum for training adult educators (Lichtenberg, 2020). However, the professionalisation of adult education can lead to the homogenisation and standardisation of practices in a professional field that is characterised by diversity in terms of professionals, contexts of intervention and participants, which would lead to losses of diversity, complexity and richness of these practices (Lattke, 2014).

Professionalisation can be seen both as a precondition for representing a specialised practice, being linked to the knowledge acquired through education, and as being related to professional activity (Abbott, 1988; Evans, 2008; Przybylska, 2008; Roquet, 2012). Also, professionalisation can be analysed from different levels, namely macro, meso and micro level (Lattke, 2016; Roquet, 2012) or from the State and its institutions, organisations, adult educators, learners and their interactions (Egetenmeyer et al., 2019). The study of the professionalisation process at the macro level refers to the analysis of the recruitment of individuals who carry out a particular professional activity, to the extent of the specification of the required educational, professional and social competences, and to the construction of professional paths. The analysis of the professionalisation at the meso level refers to an institutional dimension linked to the socialisation of actors that occurs in the institutions where the training processes and professional activities take place. The analysis of the professionalisation at the micro level is linked to the individual dynamics of knowledge production resulting from on-the-job training and differentiated training and professional activities throughout life (Roquet, 2012). The analysis presented here is focused mainly on the micro level, taking into account the professionalisation model proposed by Roquet (2012). In this sense, we sought to analyse the professionalisation based on initial and continuing education of adult educators.

The adult education field is very diverse and complex, with no clear boundaries and no well-defined occupational profiles. To circumvent the complexity and diffuse nature of the field, research on adult educators usually focuses on certain subgroups or professional activities (Lattke, 2016). This paper analyses the professionalisation of adult educators involved in the RPL. This educational practice, integrated in public policies on adult education, began to be implemented in Portugal, in 2000, with the purpose of increasing the qualification of adults with a low level of schooling by valuing life experiences and knowledge acquired through informal and non-formal education (Cavaco et al., 2014).

This paper seeks to answer the following questions: How is initial and continuing education of adult educators who intervene in the recognition of prior learning characterised? How is professionalisation of these adult educators in Portugal characterised?

We investigate longitudinally how Norwegian early career teachers (ECTs) perceive their personal development of professional agency in professional communities after completing a piloted five-year research-based master teacher education for primary and secondary school. Agency, recognized as a crucial element in teacher learning and professional development (Pyhältö et al., 2015; Toom et al., 2017; Toom et al., 2021; Priestley et al., 2013), is related to actions that we do or achieve to initiate meaningful education (Priestley et al., 2015, p. 3). Priestley and colleagues elaborate that “teacher agency” is about how people act upon specific contexts or situations and that these actions are influenced “through the interplay of personal capacities and the resources, affordances and constraints of the environment by means of which individuals act” (2015, p. 19). Further, Eteläpelto et al. (2013) and Pyhältö et al. (2015) connect teacher learning in workplace to the development of professional agency. Pyhältö et al. (2015) elaborate how teacher learning, understood as professional agency in professional communities, includes elements such as skills, efficacy beliefs and motivational factors which also involve active strategies for seeking help and improvement of teaching practices.

Regarding the impact of context on ECTs’ agency, Priestley et al. (2015) underscore that performativity involves demands from both the school and ECTs to perform and generate achievements towards a specific outcome. Performativity has a double meaning, as it not only concerns ECTs having to perform but also involves performance pressure. External performativity often weakens teacher agency, with many teachers choosing to ‘go with the flow’ despite their dissatisfaction with it (Priestley et al., 2015, p. 125). Accordingly, Priestley et al. (2015) identify four key elements that ECTs need to balance their agency within their professional practice: their individual practical knowledge (pedagogical knowledge and responsibility), their clients (students and parents), their employer (the organisation) and the state (through steering documents, for example). Given the significance of collaboration in teachers' professional agency development, it is useful to refer to the concept of collective agency. Hökkä et al. (2017, p. 37) regard collective agency as ‘the capacity to reflect social contexts collaboratively, and to contribute to the transformations of culture and structures over time’. As such, collective agency comprises forms of collective action that contribute to the transformation of teachers’ practice of teaching and other professional tasks.

Biesta et al. (2015) call for more research on how contextual factors may promote or hinder the development of professional agency among teachers, while Toom et al. (2017) urge more investigation into the development of professional agency from teacher education into professional work.

Our main research questions are as follows:

1) How do ECTs perceive the development of agency in terms of motivation, self – efficacy and strategies for facilitating professional learning from completing teacher education through the first five years in the profession?

2) What individual, contextual, and systemic factors, as perceived by ECTs, promote or hinder the development of professional agency?

This study attempts to clarify how using ICT and educational data in schools have been promoted since 2020 through case reports. From a survey of elementary school teachers in one city, it became evident that there were some differences in teachers' understanding of the relationship between ICT and educational data use. It is argued that this result is a problem, and an issue to be discussed when considering the potential use of ICT in education.

We used the database to analyze how elementary and secondary education had been facing COVID-19 since 2020, while using technology. The Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), an online library sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences of the U.S. Department of Education, was used to search for relevant articles from 2020 that included "COVID-19," "Elementary and Secondary Education," and "Technology Use in Education" in their abstracts. Peer-reviewed articles were surveyed. As a result, 110 articles were retrieved. Among the 110 articles, 57 dealt with distance education, 41 with barriers, 35 with teacher attitudes, 28 with access to computers, 23 with the teaching method, 15 with learner engagement, 14 with equal education, and 11with educational change.

For instance, Yanoski et al. (2021) and White et al. (2022) demonstrated how an ICT environment can contribute to the safety and security of students when they have been stopped from learning. They identified what was required of schools, administrators, and teachers, as well as what responses were effective in bridging these regional gaps. Burgin et al. (2022) pointed out the importance of examining student engagement in distance learning and bringing needs and voices into consideration in lesson design. Naff et al. (2022) found that the home environment, socioeconomic status, and previous mental health or disability diagnosis had an impact while addressing the effects of COVID-19 on the mental health of PK-12 students. Administrators should focus on well-being of children and teachers, carefully examine their emotions, and be agile in advancing policies with teachers on how to respond to crisis situations (Kwatubana & Molaodi 2021; Wilson, 2021; Farhadi & Winton 2022). Yıldız and Göçen (2022) examined teachers' opinions on leadership and guidelines for teachers' behavior to survive in turbulent times and attempted to identify what teachers should do in response to the new normal.

Thus, the articles published over the past three years confirm that elementary and secondary education, through its response to COVID-19, has become more confronted with the digital divide and the students' mental health care that exists in the region and the importance of the attitude and role of principals and teachers in facing these issues. Through our research with ERIC, we found that since COVID-19 started, the use of ICT in schools has been discussed in detail as a response to various problems, with references to ICT as a tool for guaranteeing learning and close communication. However, we did not find many references to the use of ICT for data application in solving various problems.

The research question for this study is: In relation to the use of ICT in schools, do teachers consider the use of ICT in the classroom and the use of educational data as two separate things?

The digital transformation has a profound impact on how we live, learn, and work while information, knowledge, and learning become increasingly important (Castells, 2017). In this context, learning is not only characterised by an acquisition of knowledge but rather by the continuous creation and recreation of knowing and learning in practice (Gherardi, 2008). To meet the associated demands employees often rely on workplace learning, a concept that has attracted practical and scientific attention in recent years. However, there remains a scarcity of empirical evidence in digital contexts (Ifenthaler, 2017). This study explores how learning and knowing are enacted in digital work practices in crowdwork. Crowdwork describes “paid crowdsourced work [mediated through platforms] where the delivery of service occurs entirely online” (Margaryan & Hofmeister, 2021, p. 44). It combines various trends in digital work like flexibilization, marketisation, individualisation, and the dissolution of boundaries (Ashford et al., 2018; Frey et al., 2004; Kleemann et al., 1999; Rump & Eilers, 2017).

Learning in the workplace is based on the “holistic nature of performance […] [and] requires several different types of knowledge and skill” (Eraut, 2004, pp. 256–257). Unlike formal education learning in the workplace is often unintentional, contextual, and collaborative. It produces situation-specific explicit and tacit knowing through cognitive and physical activities (Eraut, 2004; Tynjälä, 2008). The separation between performance and learning is much less evident (Billett, 2010). To consider the holistic and complex character of workplace learning, this study builds on a practice-based approach.

Summarizing different praxeological perspectives, Schatzki (2001, p. 2) defines practices as “arrays of human activity centrally organized around shared practical understandings”. Most practice theories agree that practices are human mental and physical activities, mediated through artefacts and objects. However, practice theories disagree on the relationship between knowing, learning, and practice (Gherardi, 2008; Schatzki, 2001). Building on the concept of knowing-in-practice by Gherardi (2019), knowing and learning cannot be separated as they are constantly produced and reproduced in practice. This makes knowing and learning part of everyday routines which are socially shared as “something people do together” (Gherardi, 2008, p. 517). These everyday routines are not mindless automatic acts. Rather they combine intentionality, cultural norms, and unpredictability (Billett, 2010; Reckwitz, 2003). A praxeological analysis of workplace learning, therefore, comprises carefully examining working practices and how learning and knowing are enacted (Gherardi, 2010).

In 2020, there were more than 500 digital labour platforms in Europe, comprising online crowdwork and offline services (Groen et al., 2021). Crowdworkers mainly work part-time and self-employed (Mrass & Peters, 2017; Piasna et al., 2022). Crowdwork tasks require various skill levels. Microwork asks for low to medium-level skills, online freelancing requires specialised professional skills (Margaryan & Hofmeister, 2021). Findings on learning are ambivalent. On the one hand, opportunities for personal and professional development seem limited, as most tasks can be carried out with low to medium-level skills (Groen et al., 2021) and Altenried (2017, p. 176) even defines crowdwork as “digital taylorism” (Altenried, 2017, p. 176). On the other hand, crowdwork offers informal workplace learning opportunities (Margaryan, 2017) and supports crowdworkers with learning skills for the “new world of work” (Ashford et al., 2018, p. 23).

This study aims to contribute to a better understanding of how learning and knowing are enacted in crowdwork practices that reflect digital workplace learning. Therefore, this study’s research question is:

• How is knowing and learning in digital work practices enacted in crowdwork?

This study will explore the finding’s implications for future educational research and policies in crowdwork and digital workplace settings.

Information and computer technology (ICT) is expanding rapidly. Whether in the form of virtual assistants like Alexa (Dousay and Hall 2018), generative artificial intelligence (AI) like ChatGPT (Jeon and Lee 2023) or social robots (LeTendre and Gray 2023), teachers must now contend with multiple new technologies. While educational technology corporations promote the advantages of these technologies as improving student achievement, the actual impact on teachers is unclear. In some cases, teachers may find themselves spending less time on instruction and more time on dealing with failing technology (Serholt, Pareto et al. 2020). We know that inclusion of ICT in teacher education has important effects on teachers’ use of ICT (Davis, Preston et al. 2009, Davis and Loveless 2011). Teacher characteristics also play a critical role in the use of ICT (Gil-Flores, Rodríguez-Santero et al. 2017). However, little research has been conducted on how ICT is related to teacher collaboration or teachers ability to enact leadership in schools via professional learning. Collaboration is crucial to the teaching profession and is linked with teacher’s ability to enact leadership (Woo, LeTendre et al. 2022). Professional cooperation has been identified as a central element in major reviews of teacher leadership. (York-Barr and Duke 2004, Wenner and Campbell 2017, Nguyen, Harris et al. 2018). Does training or professional development in ICT promote teacher collaboration?

To address this lack of research, we undertook a study to examine how the inclusion of the use of ICT for teaching in teacher education and participation in professional development (PD) for ICT skills for teaching are related to teacher collaboration and cooperation. Using the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2018, we looked at two composite measures of collaboration and cooperation. In TALIS 2018, teacher collaboration was measured with a scale that includes: “teaching jointly as a team in the same class; observing other teachers’ classes and providing feedback; engaging in joint activities across different classes and age groups (e.g. projects); taking part in collaborative professional learning.” On the other hand, teacher cooperation was measured with a scale that includes: ““exchanging teaching materials with colleagues; engaging in discussions about the learning development of specific students; working with other teachers in this school to ensure common standards in evaluations for assessing student progress; and attending team conferences.”

Our fixed-effects estimation showed that both the inclusion of the use of ICT for teaching in formal teacher training and participation in PD for developing ICT skills were significantly and positively associated with teacher collaboration and coordination across a broad range of societies including many European countries (e.g., Austria, Finland, Italy), even after controlling for other variables. In addition, we found that both the inclusion of ICT in formal teacher training and participation in PD were positively associated with professional collaboration in almost all societies only with a few exceptions.

Together, our findings suggest that systematic training or access to ongoing PD in ICT appears to be a promising area to improve teacher’s ability to collaborate and cooperate, and thus enhance teacher’s leadership capacities. It is likely that teachers who have access to high quality training and PD are more likely to be aware of the positive aspects of new technologies and better able to navigate their pitfalls. We argue that the inclusion of the use of ICT for teaching in teacher education and participation in PD regarding ICT skills for teaching will become even more salient in the future as the explosion of ICT continues.

The increasing importance of workplace learning is evident as we continually encounter situations lacking predefined models, guidelines, interpretations, tools, or solutions. These complex scenarios demand immediate resolution within the workplace context (Harteis, 2022). However, constant changes and accelerating pace may induce stress and challenge mental well-being (Blomgren & Perhoniemi, 2022) if not addressed with appropriate tools and strategies (Hobfoll, 1989). The growing pressures on learning and skill development necessitate a re-evaluation of learning methods, practices, and techniques (Nissinen et al., 2022; 2023). The workplace is thus challenged to embrace flexible thinking and develop innovative tools for work transformation (Markauskaite & Goodyear, 2017). It is not just about surviving at work, but being able to feel a healthy enthusiasm and work engagement.

The most recent variable, Artificial Intelligence (AI), brings demands for rapid and flexible renewal in the work context (Halonen et. al., 2023). However, people may not have enough energy and resources for learning new things if they are constantly in a state of overburden (Knight et al., 2021). Additionally, the ways job crafting is done, can become burdensome and even threaten well-being at work (Nissinen et al., 2023). AI stands out from earlier technologies due to its capacity for (semi-)independent action (Maedche et al., 2019; Rieder et al., 2020; Scherer, 2016). Recent advancements in generative AI, notably the advancing sophistication of Large Language Models (LLMs), are enhancing the significance and adoption of AI-driven technologies in organizational contexts (Dwivedi et al., 2023; Markus and Rowe, 2023)

The role of artificial and supportive intelligences in workplace learning can be examined through system-theoretical lenses. Artificial Intelligence (AI) can be perceived as an integral system component, coexisting with human actors, essential for the collaborative creation of new knowledge. Consequently, AI can reshape the system (practices) and introduce novel inputs into discussions, which individuals or teams could not generate without technology (Halonen et al., 2023).

In job crafting interventions, the rapid evolution of technology is seen as a driving force for the continual acceleration of workplace learning (Van Wingerden et al., 2017). We use Job Demands-Resources Theory (Demerouti et al., 2001) in developing a sustainable job crafting model, where AI is utilized as a systemic resource to reshape and craft work practices. Our goal is to interrupt possible burdensome cycles at work and introduce a model which aims to decrease workload, increase job crafting, work engagement, well-being and professional networks. Our model combines job crafting strategies, AI and network crafting, and leverages research on job crafting intervention models (Knight et al., 2021; Roczniewska et al., 2023), particularly from the perspective of sustainable work practices. We recognize the agentic role of AI technologies which radically changes the flow of information and interactions. Our perspective of AI extends beyond merely accelerating tasks and supplying pre-formulated solutions. We envision it as a catalyst for novel types of network intelligence, stimulating collective engagement and provoking epistemic emotions that cultivate creativity, dedication, and elements of higher-level learning (problem solving, critical thinking, creativity) which are also crucial at workplace learning. We presented the issue at a National School Principal Conference in Helsinki, Finland in November 2023. Twenty of the conference participants informed us that they were interested in participating in the pilot of the sustainable job crafting model. We aim to gather max. 50 participants in this study.

Objective and Theoretical Background

This multiple-layer, mixed methods research and development study set to identify the domains of knowledge that preservice students, their practice teachers and pedagogical advisors perceived as crucial for online teaching. This based the development and piloting of an evidence-based mentoring model of online teacher learning in practice.

Contemporary professional education (PE) in the digital era carries significant

implications for rethinking course design and curricula in teacher education. However, there are evident divergences between the content and teaching methods promoted in preservice programs and the demands of actual teaching (Reisoğlu & Çebi, 2020). Hence, the need to develop teacher education curricula with a focus on professional, context-based, contemporary, knowledge construction (Bradbury et al., 2015; Wang & Orland-Barak, 2020), based on relevant practice in virtual spaces (Yuan, 2018).

While the reality is that online teaching and learning has developed into an alternative for face-to-face teaching and learning, there is evidence regarding faculty beliefs, stating that online learning outcomes may be poorer compared to face-to-face settings (Ward & Benson, 2010). This may be due to the lack of balance in content and pedagogical practices, which may create an overload in both teaching and learning (James et al., 2021). Moreover, faculty beliefs are not taken into account, while- according to studies-they are indeed factors that affect utilization of technology in learning in general and in online learning in particular.

When referring to online teaching and learning, technology has a remarkable influence which may have either positive or negative impact on learners’ experiences and outcomes (Panigrahi et al., 2018). These experiences are unique, allowing learning processes that may be impossible to achieve otherwise. Placing technology alongside pedagogy and content reflects the complexities of online learning and creates an effective prism for examining the needs of online teaching (Eichelberger & Leong, 2019).

Due to the increasing usage of online modes of teaching in higher education, implementing them in teacher education programs may be a lever for innovative teaching and learning, especially with the expanding tendencies of online education worldwide, as a result of contemporary events, and despite its complexities (Isaias et al., 2020; Martin et al., 2020). However, while digital competencies are growingly incorporated in preservice teachers’ curricula, there seem to be complexities supporting this tendency (Tømte et al., 2015), either due to a lack of self-efficacy (Ding & Hong, 2023) and digital competencies (Marais, 2023), or the slow process of transforming teacher educators’ curriculum so they themselves integrate technology (Voithofer, 2021), to name a few.

We address the challenge of shifting to blended teaching and teacher education in an attempt to link preservice teacher practice to developing trends in teaching and learning. Moreover, we acknowledge the vagueness and insecurity of teacher educators, who are in fact mediating professional knowledge of the “old world” of teaching, and may not be proficient in training preservice teachers, as experienced in times of emergency remote teaching (Trust & Whalen, 2020). The current study tackles this incongruence by identifying and applying domains of knowledge needed for quality online teaching.

Research question: What domains of knowledge characterize the digital teacher learning space? and how can these be translated into a model for mentoring in the blended teacher learning space?

Teacher agency, a key focus in recent educational research, receives considerable attention due to its vital role in teachers' professional development. This attention stems from the understanding that agency is intricately linked to various factors, including past professional milestones, personal beliefs, and contextual influences (Priestley et al., 2015; Tinn & Ümarik, 2021). Recognizing that agency is not inherent in every action, this research emphasizes the need to explore and understand the diverse expressions of teacher agency within the work process. The goal is to identify and recognize teacher agency as a habitual or intentional action reflecting genuine professional agency.

Teacher agency encompasses influential factors such as the general context, including social and educational changes, identity, and professional knowledge leading to different discourses. Specific impacts of various aspects can be investigated using Piestley and Robinson's three-dimensional model, connecting iterational, projective, and practical-evaluative dimensions (Piestley & Robinson, 2015). There is a growing body of research on what influences the emergence and development of agency and how to sustain and support its growth (Eteläpelto & Vähäsantanen, 2008). However, with the diversity of influencing factors, it can be assumed that agency may not always come into action in the same manner. This paper focuses on the different expression possibilities of agency – agency in action – and the factors that impact these expressions.

While numerous articles discuss what influences the emergence and development of agency and how to support it, this paper examines how agency is specifically expressed, in what ways, and how uniform its realization is in a teacher's lived educational actuality.

We observe that educational changes are a significant influencer of agency (Tinn & Ümarik, 2021). This empirical study aims to understand how different conditional factors are related to enabling or disabling agency, moving on to examine the specific forms that agency in action takes.

Selected teachers, whose careers began in the 60s-70s, yielded limited insights into the Soviet era during life history interviews. The scarcity of material is evident in the resulting typology and narrative portrayals. Rich data emerged primarily in the late 80s, amidst significant societal upheaval leading to the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Estonia's independence restoration in 1991. These transformative times profoundly impacted society, with the education sector at the forefront of conscious change. The analysis reflects these historical dynamics, and life history interviews from the past 30 years provide a robust foundation for the study.

At the core of teacher agency is the ability to imagine alternatives, capturing the possibility of different alternative ways of acting. This is precisely why agency manifests itself in different ways, as different paths are inherent. How agency in action can take different forms and find alternative paths, while essentially sprouting from the same basis, is mapped in detail in the typology and described in four portrayals to unlock these types for a reader.

The typology is based on the theory-based analysis of the ecological model of agency (Priestley et al., 2015), which has three dimensions: iterational, projective, and practical-evaluative. In the analysis process, we also considered an addition suggested by Leijen et al. (2019) to add a feature of personal long-term purpose-making to the model.

The main themes from the analysis were accountability, efficiency, knowledge base, professional identity, perceived autonomy, short-term goals, long-term purposes, and school culture. All these themes were more or less influenced by another factor that surfaced in the analysis process – teacher nostalgia. Likewise, it was found that agency can also manifest as a toxic agency – a phenomenon whose connections with certain types of nostalgia were particularly strong.

In Switzerland, almost one teacher out of five leaves the profession within the first five years (OFS, 2022). One of the factors behind this phenomenon is the difficulties encountered by teachers in dealing with difficult pupils’ behaviour (Høigaard et al., 2012; Montague & Kwok, 2022). Thus, the development of good classroom management skills, particularly the ability to deal with difficult pupils’ behaviour in an educational manner, is an issue in teacher training (Gaudreau et al., 2012). However, this ability is linked to teachers' self-efficacy for classroom management (Gaudreau et al., 2015). Teacher effectiveness is notably impacted by empowerment, of which self-efficacy is one of the dimensions (Hemric et al., 2010). However, there seems to be little systematic research on the relations between the concepts of self-efficacy for classroom management and empowerment among trainee teachers. Thus, the problem lies in the lack of knowledge of the relation between self-efficacy in classroom management among student teachers and their empowerment. Empowerment can be defined as "[a] process by which a person or a community frees itself from a state of subjection, acquires the ability to use its full rights, and frees itself from a social, moral or intellectual dependency" (Maury & Hedjerassi, 2020, p.3). In relation to the educational sciences, it appears that teacher empowerment has a positive influence on their decision-making capacity, their professional learning and their impact on pupils’ success. Empowerment is also central to improve teaching (Veisi et al., 2015). Moreover, self-efficacy appears to be one of the constituent dimensions of empowerment that proves to be one of the most reliable predictors of a teacher's professional commitment (Bogler & Somech, 2004). Bandura (2007) defines self-efficacy as the individual's belief in his or her ability to organise and carry out the course of action required to produce desired results. Thus, teachers’ self-efficacy is their belief in their own ability to play a key role in the success of their pupils. It is also their belief that they can bring their students along with them in their teaching project (Brown et al., 2015). Studies show that teachers with a high self-efficacy are more involved in the running of their institution, more open to pedagogical developments and more pugnacious when faced with difficult situations (Veisi et al., 2015). With regard to classroom management, teachers who can rely on a strong self-efficacy to face difficult pupils’ behaviour are more inclined to develop educational practices tailored to pupils' aspirations. As a result, pupils develop more positive attitudes to learning and development. This has a positive impact on their school experience and success (Gaudreau et al., 2015). Empowerment is thus considered by Bandura (1997) to be generated by the development of self-efficacy. However, from a systemic perspective, it seems appropriate to question the interaction between these two concepts in the development of teachers' skills, particularly in regard to classroom management (Nazari et al., 2021).

The literature suggests that self-efficacy for classroom management may be related to empowerment. Indeed, some studies indicate statistically significant relationships between self-efficacy and empowerment (Hemric et al., 2010; Veisi et al., 2015). The aim of this study was therefore to verify the existence of a relation between these two concepts. The results of this study show relations between certain dimensions of self-efficacy for classroom management and certain dimensions of empowerment. These results are discussed in light of Gaudreau’ (2017) self-efficacy for classroom management and Maury and Hedjerassi’ (2020) empowerment process theories.

The work ability (WA) construct was proposed to identify whether individuals are able to continue to meet the physical and psychosocial requirements of their profession. Perceived teacher work ability (PWA) refers to the teachers’s subjective assessment of their individual physical and mental capacity to perform the required job tasks and successfully cope with the physical, emotional, and organizational demands associated with the current teacher roles (Hlaďo et al., 2020; McGonagle et al., 2022).

The role of self-rated health in the relationship between burnout and perceived teacher work ability

In light of previous research, the teaching profession is widely acknowledged as one characterized by substantial stress levels. Teacher stress primarily emanates from the high job demands and the demanding work conditions inherent to the teaching profession. The JD-R model and previous research findings showed that ineffectively managing job demands and persistent work-related stress may result in teacher burnout (Schaufeli & Taris, 2014; Hakanen et al., 2006). For instance, Hlaďo et al. (2020) among aging upper secondary school teachers found that burnout is a significant predictor of WA with a strong negative effect. More frequently than other occupational groups, teachers suffer from diseases that develop from mental and emotional stress (Freude et al., 2005). Relying on the JD-R model, it can be concluded that burnout may lead to adverse outcomes for the individual, including impaired employee health (Schaufeli & Taris, 2014). On the other side, physical and mental health affects an individual’s capacity to perform job demands, and health conditions can be considered an antecedent of PWA. However, limited research has examined the relationships between burnout, health status, and WA in teachers simultaneously. In the JD-R model, physical and mental health is harmed by burnout (Taris et al., 2017), and impaired health can be regarded as contributing to reduced WA among teachers (Cadiz et al., 2019). Thus, physical and mental health may intensify the adverse effect of burnout on WA. Thus, we hypothesize:

- H1: Self-rated physical health and self-rated mental health serve as mediators for the relationship between burnout and PWA among lower secondary school teachers.

The role of burnout in the relationship between self-efficacy and perceived teacher work ability

Previous research has shown a positive relationship between self-efficacy and WA in different occupational groups. Among primary and middle school Italian teachers, Guidetti et al. (2018) found that teachers’ self-efficacy significantly and positively influences PWA. In their systematic review, Mijakoski et al. (2022) identified low teacher self-efficacy as a detrimental determinant of teacher exhaustion. The research findings suggest that teacher burnout is reduced or mitigated when teachers positively perceive their self‐efficacy. The revised JD-R model (Taris et al., 2017) posits a mediating role of burnout in the link between personal resources and work outcomes. Drawing on the research findings outlined above, we can infer that higher self-efficacy among teachers may result in lower levels of burnout and, consequently, a higher level of WA. As stated above, teachers with high self-efficacy demonstrate lower burnout since self-efficacy is associated with more effective coping strategies, allowing teachers to focus on finding solutions to the problems. Thus, higher self-efficacy prevents teacher burnout, and lower burnout levels promote higher WA. However, to our knowledge, no study has explored the mediating effects of burnout in the relationship between self-efficacy and WA. Therefore, we hypothesize:

- H2: Burnout acts as a mediator between self-efficacy and PWA among lower secondary school teachers.