31. LEd – Network on Language and Education
Paper
Predictors of L2 Grit and Their Complex Interactions in Online Language Learning: Motivation, Self-directed Learning, Autonomy, Curiosity, and Language Mindsets
Michał B. Paradowski, Magdalena Jelińska
Institute of Applied Linguistics, University of Warsaw, Poland
Presenting Author: Paradowski, Michał B.
Learning a foreign language is a long-term process requiring persistence and a willingness to engage in activities that will help develop communicative competence. An important role on the way to achieving linguistic proficiency is played by L2 grit (Teimouri, Plonsky & Tabandeh, 2022). However, knowledge on the subject is still limited, leading to controversies around the definition of this psychological disposition and its measurement (Oxford & Khajavy, 2021; Khajavy, MacIntyre & Hariri, 2021; Elahi Shirvan, Taherian & Yazdanmehr, 2021). Although a handful of studies provide some insight into the contribution of L2 grit to the development of L2 competence, we still do not know the reasons why learners demonstrate different levels of this trait and subsequently the extent of their L2 achievement (Elahi Shirvan & Alamer, 2022; Teimouri, Sudina & Plonsky, 2021).
Learners’ language mindsets are related to their perceptions of what they can achieve by making an educational effort (Lou & Noels, 2017). Since time spent studying is one of the strongest predictors of language achievement, positive beliefs about learning effort are considered a key motivational factor for language success (Csizér & Dörnyei, 2005). These beliefs about the meaning of the effort undertaken and one’s own L2 abilities may determine the level of L2 grit. However, previous research has not provided a clear and unambiguous pattern of these relationships.
Language education is gradually shifting towards a learner-centred approach. As long as the learner perceives L2 learning as a personal choice and a self-determined goal with personally chosen activities, they will be able to make a persistent and active effort to achieve this learning objective. Being more autonomous may therefore explain a greater disposition to be gritty in meeting an L2 learning goal. Yes, little is known about the relationship between L2 grit and sense of autonomy.
L2 grit, manifest in perseverance in overcoming challenges, and consistent effort that will facilitate linguistic development, may stem from the desire to expand one’s knowledge, develop skills and acquire new experiences, i.e. from curiosity, which involves setting particular goals and tasks to fill the knowledge gap. So far, however, the role of curiosity in language learning has not been researched. Its relationship with L2 grit is also unknown.
The remote learning environment entails additional challenges, so it is important that the learner be equipped with appropriate skills and personal qualities. Two dimensions of readiness for online learning seem particularly important in this context: motivation and self-directed learning. Some previous studies have shown a positive relationship between motivation and L2 grit (e.g., Teimouri et al., 2022; Changlek & Palanukulwong, 2015). Yet, little is known about the association between L2 grit and self-directed learning, even though we may expect this factor to have an important influence. Little research has been conducted on the role of grit in the context of online learning in general. While existing studies (Aparicio, Bação & Oliveira, 2017; McClendon, Neugebauer & King, 2017; Lan & Moscardino, 2019; Liu et al., 2021; Yang, 2021) suggest that grit is important in this context, many of them measured general-domain rather than language-domain specific grit. Nor were the predictors of L2 grit analysed in this learning context.
Taking all these rationales into account, we pose the following research questions:
RQ1: Which characteristics from among language mindsets, curiosity, autonomy, and readiness for online learning measured by its two dimensions: self-directed learning and motivation, determine language-domain-specific grit in remote and hybrid learning settings?
RQ2: What are the relationships between L2 grit and these variables? Which of these factors are particularly important in the complex network of associations with L2 grit?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedA specially designed online survey was completed between October 2021 and July 2022 by 615 respondents from 69 countries who were learning 33 different foreign languages while participating in online or hybrid courses.
To identify predictors of language-domain-specific grit in remote and hybrid learning settings from among the independent variables, we used a set of commonly used, reliable and valid scales along with one custom-made tool constructed specially for this research:
L2 grit scale (adapted from Teimouri, Plonsky & Tabandeh, 2020; Cronbach’s α and McDonald’s ωh = .84, Guttman’s λ6 = .87).
Language Mindsets Inventory (Lou & Noels, 2017). The L2 growth mindset subscale had good reliability (Cronbach’s α = .81, McDonald’s ωh = .82, Guttman’s λ6 = .75), with the L2 fixed mindset subscale characterised by a slightly lower but still acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach’s α and McDonald’s ωh = .77, Guttman’s λ6 = .69).
Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (Kashdan et al., 2009; Cronbach’s α, McDonald’s ωh and Guttman’s λ6 = .85).
Autonomy subscale from the Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale (Chen et al., 2015; Cronbach’s α and McDonald’s ωh = .81, Guttman’s λ6 = .84).
Newly constructed scale of Readiness for online learning with two dimensions: self-directed learning (Cronbach’s α = .74, McDonald’s ωh = .75, Guttman’s λ6 = .70) and online learning motivation (Cronbach’s α, McDonald’s ωh and Guttman’s λ6 = .85).
To address the first research question concerning the predictors of L2 grit in remote and hybrid learning settings, we built a multiple linear regression model. To answer the second research question about the relationships between L2 grit and its putative predictors, we performed a psychological network analysis. This type of analysis, capable of illustrating dynamic relationships between individual characteristics and second/foreign language learning, has not yet received much attention from researchers in the SLA field (Freeborn, Andringa, Lunansky & Rispens, 2022). With the use of a regularised partial correlation approach applying a Gaussian graphical model with the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regularisation technique combined with Extended Bayesian Information Criterion (EBIC) model selection to minimise spurious edges, the analysis provides a clearer and more precise insight into the relationship between L2 grit and the variables examined.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe multiple linear regression model reveals that L2 grit is most determined by two dimensions of readiness for online learning, online learning motivation (β = .41, t(608) = 9.70, p < .001, ηp²= .13) and self-directed learning (β = .32, t(608) = 8.86, p < .001, ηp²= .11), and to a lesser extent by learners’ autonomy (β = .17, t(608) = 4.95, p < .001, ηp²= .04) and curiosity (β = – .09, t(608) = –2.52, p = .012, ηp²= .01). Moreover, L2 grit correlates significantly and positively with these factors. The regression model is significant (F6,608 =97.28, p < .001) and predicts 48% of variance in the dependent variable, with a very large effect size (ηp²= .49). The subsequent psychological network analysis indicates equally strong direct connections between L2 grit and both dimensions of readiness for online learning, and a much weaker edge linking L2 grit with autonomy.
Our findings also carry practical implications for teachers. Firstly, they make it clear that the learning context, e.g. a remote setting with its various challenges and affordances, may require activating somewhat different learner dispositions than the traditional, on-site approach. Secondly, the relationships observed are not always straightforward and direct, so it is important to be aware that the teacher can nurture and reinforce L2 grit in their students by strengthening their motivation and encouraging them to independently seek new sources of linguistic stimulation and make their own choices about opportunities for practising and developing their linguistic competence, thus helping contribute to their progress and satisfaction with learning the foreign language.
ReferencesElahi Shirvan, M. & Alamer, A. (2022). Modeling the interplay of EFL learners’ basic psychological needs, grit and L2 achievement. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 10.1080/01434632.2022.2075002
Elahi Shirvan, M., Taherian, T., & Yazdanmehr, E. (2021). L2 grit: a longitudinal confirmatory factor analysis-curve of factors model. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1-28. 10.1017/S0272263121000590
Feng, L., & Papi, M. (2020). Persistence in language learning: The role of grit and future self-guides. Learning and Individual Differences, 81, 101904. 10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101904
Khajavy, G.H. & Aghaee, E. (2022). The contribution of grit, emotions and personal bests to foreign language learning. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 10.1080/01434632.2022.2047192
Khajavy, G.H., MacIntyre, P., & Hariri, J. (2021). A closer look at grit and language mindset as predictors of foreign language achievement. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 43(2), 379-402. 10.1017/S0272263120000480
Liu, C., He, J., Ding, C., Fan, X., Hwang, G. J., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Self-oriented learning perfectionism and English learning burnout among EFL learners using mobile applications: the mediating roles of English learning anxiety and grit. Learning and Individual Differences, 88, 102011. 10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102011
Oxford, R.L., & Khajavy, G.H. (2021). Exploring Grit: “Grit Linguistics” and Research on Domain-General Grit and L2 Grit. Journal for the Psychology of Language Learning, 3(2), 7-36. 10.52598/jpll/3/2/2
Sudina, E. & Plonsky, L. (2021). Academic perseverance in foreign language learning: An investigation of language-specific grit and its conceptual correlates. The Modern Language Journal, 105: 829-857. 10.1111/modl.12738
Sudina, E., Brown, J., Datzman, B., Oki, Y., Song, K., Cavanaugh, R., Thiruchelvam, B., & Plonsky, L. (2021). Language-specific grit: Exploring psychometric properties, predictive validity, and differences across contexts. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 15, 334–351. 10.1080/17501229.2020.1802468
Teimouri, Y., Plonsky, L., & Tabandeh, F. (2022). L2 grit: Passion and perseverance for second-language learning. Language Teaching Research, 26(5), 893–918. 10.1177/1362168820921895
Teimouri, Y., Sudina, E, & Plonsky, L. (2021). On domain-specific conceptualization and measurement of grit in L2 learning. Journal for the Psychology of Language Learning, 3(2), 156-165. 10.52598/jpll/3/2/10
Wei, H., Gao, K. & Wang, W. (2019). Understanding the relationship between grit and foreign language performance among middle school students: The roles of foreign language enjoyment and classroom environment. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1508. 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01508
Yang, P. (2021). Exploring the relationship between Chinese EFL students’ grit, well-being, and classroom enjoyment. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 762945. 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.762945
31. LEd – Network on Language and Education
Paper
Start Learning English Early in Primary School? Results from a Large-scale-assessment Study on the Long-term Effects on EFL Proficiency
Raphaela Porsch1, Stefan Schipolowski2, Camilla Rjosk3, Karoline Sachse2
1University of Magdeburg, Germany; 2Institute for Educational Quality Improvement (IQB) at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany; 3University of Potsdam, Germany
Presenting Author: Porsch, Raphaela
In many European countries, students learn English as a first foreign language, a situation that is replicated in most federal states in Germany where education is not a centralized task. However, there is no consensus on the ideal starting point for learning a new language. Countries within Europe and regions within countries differ with regard to whether school children start learning English in Year 1 or Year 3 in primary school of schooling or later at secondary level. Despite these differences there has been an overall tendency to shift the starting point and start earlier in primary school. Overall, empirical findings on whether an early or later start better supports the acquisition of an additional language are mixed. For example, positive effects were reported by Ow et al. (2012) from a study conducted in Switzerland while no effects have been found in a study by Tribushinina et al. (2022) with native speakers of Russian. A large-scale study that aimed to address some limitations of previous studies, particularly the non-representativeness of the samples, was a study by Baumert et al. (2020). The authors analyzed data from about 20,000 students from Germany that participated in an assessment based on the national educational standards for English in 2009. The researchers explored the long-term effects of an early start to English instruction on receptive language proficiencies in Year 9 by comparing early starters (Year 1), a middle group (year 3) and late starters (Year 5). Overall, the proficiency levels of the groups differed only marginally.
Learning English became mandatory in almost all primary schools in 15 of the 16 federal states in Germany in 2004/2005. However, it can be assumed that it took some time until all primary school students actually received English instruction. The data for the study conducted by Baumert et al. (2020) were collected only five years after this change to the curriculum. These students left primary school in around 2005 when implementation of the reform had just begun. In particular, we assume that a sufficient provision of trained EFL teachers could not be guaranteed at that time. The number of qualified English teachers at primary schools and teachers’ ability to teach young children a foreign language should have increased by now as more universities provide training for future EFL primary school teachers. There should also be a higher awareness for a need to support the transition from primary to secondary level and may have positively influenced the quality of teaching. This, then, may lead to an advantage for students with an early onset of English instruction over late English learners, including positive long-term learning effects. Taken together, the learning conditions for students learning English early in primary school may have improved. In order to test this assumption, we analyzed data from the consecutive national educational monitoring study conducted by the IQB in 2015 with students in Year 9. However, as previously pointed out, the onset and length of English instruction in school may differ between and within states. The reason is that some schools offered students from our target group voluntary learning opportunities while students at other schools may not have received English instruction due to a lack of qualified teachers. To take these differences into account, we assessed the onset of EFL instruction at the individual level and differentiate between three groups of learners: students who began learning English before Year 3, in Year 3 and those who have were taught English from Year 4 or 5.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe data were collected between April and June 2015 in the IQB’s Trends in Student Achievement 2015 (Stanat et al., 2017). This nation-wide large-scale assessment is part of the educational monitoring system in Germany, examining the extent to which students in the 16 German states meet the National Educational Standards in German and in EFL at the end of compulsory education. Standardized achievement tests (listening and reading comprehension), a test of reasoning ability and a questionnaire were administered to a total of 33,110 ninth-graders in a randomly drawn sample of schools. Excluding special educational needs schools, the total analysis sample consisted of 30,880 ninth-grade students with valid achievement test data from 1,411 schools including all school tracks in all of the 16 states.
About 21.3 percent of the ninth-graders in Germany (sample size n = 7,293) received English instruction before Year 3. For almost two thirds (63.6%) of these early starters, onset of English instruction was in Year 1; about one third (36.4%) started in Year 2. A total of 52.9 percent of the ninth-graders indicated having learned English in school from Year 3 (n = 16,133). Finally, for 21.3 percent of all ninth-graders, English instruction in school began later than Year 3 (n = 5,795). These so-called late starters began receiving English instruction in Year 4 (with 64.1% the majority of the late starters) or in Year 5 (35.9% of the late starters). About 5.2 percent of all ninth-graders could not be assigned to the aforementioned categories due to interruptions to their learning or insufficient information (n = 1,659).
Using case weights, the sample is representative of the population of ninth-graders in general education schools in Germany in 2015 who had learned English from Year 5 onwards or earlier. The students’ mean age in the sample was 15.5 years (SD = 0.59) and 49.5 percent were female. modelling and scaling of the test item data were based on unidimensional one-parameter logistic item response theory (IRT) models. For the person proficiency estimates, a latent regression model for a large number of background variables including the variables used in the following analyses was combined with the IRT models. Missing data in the questionnaire variables were replaced using multiple imputation by chained equations.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe results show that an earlier start is advantageous as students learning English from Year 3 or earlier showed significantly higher proficiency scores than late starters with a mean difference of about 0.15 to 0.20 standard deviations after controlling for individual and household characteristics. Furthermore, students with an onset of English instruction before Year 3 on average had higher scores in most analyses in our study than learners starting in Year 3; however, in terms of practical significance this difference was small. Every study has its strengths and limitations. First, two variables are confounded in our research: the higher proficiency levels of early starters can either be related to an earlier start (age of onset) or to a higher frequency of learning opportunities (amount of exposure). This critique that is also applicable to many other studies can only be overcome by applying a (quasi-)experimental design and by including characteristics of learners, learning opportunities outside the classroom and features of instruction in the analyses. Second, information on the onset of EFL instruction in school was collected retrospectively by asking the students about their history of learning. Further research should investigate the effects of an earlier start by using multiple measurement points and including information on the teaching quality and expertise of the EFL teachers. Despite these limitations we believe that our study contributes to the research field in a significant way. The results suggest that an early onset of English instruction can have positive effects on achievement that are still visible in Year 9. This supports the view of those suggesting that children should start learning English early in primary school. At the same time, however, time resources are limited and there may be circumstances in which priorities need to shift, such as the severe teacher shortage Germany is currently experiencing.
ReferencesBaumert, J., Fleckenstein, J., Leucht, M., Köller, O., & Möller, J. (2020). The Long-Term Proficiency of Early, Middle, and Late Starters Learning English as a Foreign Language at School: A Narrative Review and Empirical Study. Language Learning, 70(4), 1091–1135.
Ow, A. von, Husfeldt, V., & Bader-Lehmann, U. (2012). Einflussfaktoren für den Lernerfolg von Englisch an der Primarstufe: Eine Untersuchung in fünf Schweizer Kantonen und dem Fürstentum Liechtenstein [Factors influencing success in the learning of English at primary level: A study in five Swiss cantons and the Principality of Liechtenstein]. Babylonia, 2012(1), 52–57.
Stanat, P., Böhme, K., Schipolowski, S., & Haag, N. (2017). IQB Trends in Student Achievement 2015. English Summary. https://www.iqb.hu-berlin.de/bt/BT2015/Bericht/
Tribushinina, E., Dubinkina-Elgart, E., & Mak, O. (2022). Effects of early foreign language instruction and L1 transfer on vocabulary skills of EFL learners with DLD. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics. https://10.1080/02699206.2022.2076261
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