09. Assessment, Evaluation, Testing and Measurement
Paper
The Relationship Between Parental Mindsets and Children's Motivation in Mathematics
Cecilia Thorsen1, Kajsa Yang Hansen1,2
1University West, Sweden; 2University of Gothenburg, Sweden
Presenting Author: Thorsen, Cecilia;
Yang Hansen, Kajsa
Mathematics is perceived by many students as a particularly difficult subject, and many tend to experience higher levels of anxiety in relation to mathematics compared to other subjects (Goetz et. al., 2007). At the same time, mathematical competencies are fundamental to several aspects of contemporary society (OECD, 2013). Fostering motivation is therefore important for supporting students who experience difficulties in mathematics, especially since motivation is a driving force for learning mathematics over time (Wigfield et al., 2016). A number of studies have shown a positive relationship between motivation and achievement in mathematics, regardless of theoretical approach (e.g., Kriegbaum et. al., 2018; Prast et. al., 2018). Students who are motivated also tend to engage more in mathematical activities because they find them enjoyable and interesting (Eccles & Wigfield, 2004), and the development of motivation for mathematics during elementary school is related to the choice of mathematics-intensive careers (Musu-Gillette et. al., 2015).
One of the most important theories of motivation for mathematics is the Expectancy Value Theory of Motivation (EVM) proposed by Eccles, Wigfield, and colleagues. According to EVM, motivation is a function of a person's expectancy of success and the value they place on the task. Expectancy of success refers to a person's belief in his/her own ability to to successfully complete a task, and value refers to the importance or relevance of the task to the person's goals or interests. Students with a higher expectancy of success and a higher value placed on mathematics tend to have higher motivation and achievement in mathematics (Wigfield et. al., 2016).
Another theory relevant to motivation is Dweck's (1995) theory of implicit intelligence. The theory states that individuals can have implicit beliefs about the nature of intelligence that can be either fixed or malleable. People with a fixed mindset believe that intelligence is not changeable, whereas people with a growth mindset believe that intelligence can be developed through effort and learning. Students' implicit beliefs about intelligence are related to both academic achievement and motivation (e.g., Song et al., 2022), implying that students with a growth mindset tend to develop several adaptive academic behaviors, such as higher motivation and achievement, than those with a fixed mindset (Yeager and Dweck, 2012).
Wigfield et al. (2004) hypothesized that Dweck's theory of implicit intelligence is related to EVM in that individuals who believe their abilities cannot be improved through effort will not engage in activities they believe they are not very good at. However, few studies have examined how such motivational beliefs are formed in children. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) proposed in their situated expectancy-value theory (SEVM) that beliefs and values are also shaped by social context, such as family, peers, and culture. In a study of how parental beliefs about fixedness of ability affect interactions with their children, Muenks et al. (2015) found that parents with fixed mindsets engaged in more controlling and achievement-oriented behaviors and were less likely to engage in math-related activities with their children. Although few studies have examined how parents' mindset affects their children's motivation, a study by Song et al. (2022) showed that children reported having greater self-reported persistence when their parents had more growth mindset. Xie et al. (2022) also found that parents' mindset indirectly predicted math anxiety through their failure beliefs.
Thus, the present study aims to investigate the role of parents' beliefs about mathematical ability, i.e., their fixed or growth mindset, in fostering student motivation. Specifically, we focus on parents' beliefs of mathematical ability as innate or malleable, and whether and how parents' mindsets affect students' self-concepts about their ability, value, and achievement of mathematics.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedParticipants
Participants were about 600 elementary school students in grade 3 and 4 and their parents. Both children and parents participated in a larger study examining the development of motivation for mathematics in the elementary school classrooms. Parental informed consent was obtained for each student participating in the study.
Instrument and procedures
Motivation was assessed using an instrument based on the Expectancy-Value Motivation Scale (EVMS), which included a total of 34 items in five dimensions: Competence Self-beliefs (6 items, e.g., Math is easy for me), Intrinsic Value (8 items, e.g., I like doing math), Achievement Value (7 items, e.g., Being good at math is very important to me personally), Utility Value (7 items, e.g., What I learn in math I can use in my daily life), and Cost (6 items, e.g., Doing math problems keeps me from doing other things I like). All items were answered on a 4-point scale ranging from 'a lot of times' to 'never." In a validation study, the scale was found to be appropriate for early elementary grades and to have a good model fit consistent with expectancy- value theory. The different EVS dimensions also showed good reliability (Peixto et al., 2022).
Parents' mindset was measured by eight items on their beliefs about mathematical ability as innate or malleable. 4 items were used to measure fixed mindset (e.g. Math ability is innate) and 4 items were used to measure growth mindset (e.g., a Child's ability in math can be improved with practise). Responses were given on a 4-point scale ranging from 'disagree' to 'agree." Socioeconomic background was measured by parental education level.
The instruments were developed in English and translated into Swedish. Translation and back-translation procedures were used, and no discrepancies were found. The EVMS instrument was distributed in grades 3 and 4 in Sweden in spring 2022 as part of a larger study. Administration was done at school by trained research assistants using pen and paper questionnaires. Parents received a QR code and answered a digital questionnaire.
Analytic Method
Structural equation modelling (SEM) will be used to examine the relationship between parents' mindset and children's self-concept of ability, values, and achievement in mathematics. A path model will be estimated to examine the mechanisms between parents' fixed or growth mindset and children's self-concept of ability, value of mathematics, and achievement in mathematics according to the SEVM model of Wigfield and Eccles (2020).
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsIt is expected that parents’ fixed intelligence beliefs will negatively affect their children’s competence self-beliefs, which in turn will affect both attainment value, intrinsic value, and achievement. However, it is also possible that parents’ mindset directly affects achievement. Based on the findings of Song et al. (2022), it is also expected that the effect of parents' mindset is partially mediated by their socioeconomic background, implying that parents with lower socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to have fixed mindset.
ReferencesDweck, C. S., Chiu, C.-y., & Hong, Y.-y. (1995). Implicit theories and their role in judgments and reactions: A world from two perspectives. Psychological Inquiry, 6(4), 267–285. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0604_1
Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy-value theory to situated expectancy-value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation, Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859.
Goetz, T., Frenzel, A. C., Pekrun, R., Hall, N. C., & Lüdtke, O. (2007). Between- and within-domain relations of students' academic emotions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(4), 715–733. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.715
Kriegbaum, K., Becker, N., & Spinath, B. (2018). The relative importance of intelligence and motivation as predictors of school achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 25, 120-148.
Musu-Gillette, L.E., Wigfield, A., Harring, J.R., & Eccles, J.S. (2015). Trajectories of change in students’ self-concepts of ability and values in math and college major choice. Educational Research and Evaluation, 21(4), 343-370. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2015.1057161
OECD (2013). PISA 2012 Assessment and Analytical Framework: Mathematics, Reading, Science, Problem Solving and Financial Literacy, Paris: OECD Publishing.
Peixoto, F., Radišić, J., Krstić, K., Hansen, K. Y., Laine, A., Baucal, A., Sõrmus, M., & Mata, L. (2022). Contribution to the Validation of the Expectancy-Value Scale for Primary School Students. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/07342829221144868
Prast, E., Van de Weijer-Bergsma, E., Miočević, M., Kroesbergen, E., & Van Luit, J. (2018). Relations between mathematics achievement and motivation in students of diverse achievement levels. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 55, 84-96.
Song, Y., Barger, M. M., & Bub, K. L. (2022). The Association Between Parents’ Growth Mindset and Children’s Persistence and Academic Skills. Front. Educ, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.791652
Wigfield, A., Tonk, S., & Eccles, J. S. (2004). Expectancy value theory in cross-cultural perspective. In D. M. McInerney & S. Van Etten (Eds.), Big theories revisited (pp. 165-198). Greenwich, CO: Information Age Publishing.
Wigfield, A., Tonks, S., & Klauda, S. L. (2016). Expectancy-value theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook on motivation in school (2nd ed., pp. 55–76). New York: Routledge.
Xie, F., Duan, X.F., Ni, X.L., Li, L.N., & Zhang, L.B. (2022). The Impact of Parents’ Intelligence Mindset on Math Anxiety of Boys and Girls and the Role of Parents’ Failure Beliefs and Evaluation of Child’s Math Performance as Mediators. Front. Psychol, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.687136
Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2012) Mindsets That Promote Resilience: When Students Believe That Personal Characteristics Can Be Developed, Educational Psychologist, 47(4), 302-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2012.722805
09. Assessment, Evaluation, Testing and Measurement
Paper
Religiosity and Expected Political Engagement in the Future Among Lower-Secondary Students in 10 European Countries
Wolfram Schulz, John Ainley
ACER, Australia
Presenting Author: Schulz, Wolfram
Using data from the first two cycles of ICCS in 2009 and 2016, this paper analyses the relationship between expected political engagement and affiliation and engagement with religion as well as attitudes toward the influence of religion in society among lower-secondary students in 10 European countries. It reviews changes over time as well as of associations between indicators of religious attachment among young people with indicators of intended political engagement in the future. The databases provided by ICCS provide an excellent opportunity to investigate the links between religious affiliation and beliefs among young people as motivating factors driving expected individual engagement in society.
Religion has been identified as an important influence on civic participation and engagement (see Pancer, 2015; Putnam, & Campbell, 2010; Verba, Schlozman, & Brady, 1995) and research findings suggest that religious affiliation has an impact on political and social engagement among adults (see Ekström & Kvalem, 2013; Guo, Webb, Abzug, & Peck, 2013; Perks, & Haan, 2011; Verba et al., 1995). Similar observations have also been recently reported based on comparative international surveys across different countries (Pew Research Center, 2019a). It has been argued that religious organizations provide networks focused on political recruitment and motivation while participation in religion encourages adherents to consider features of society (a world view) that they see as desirable (Campbell, 2001; Jones-Correa & Leal, 2001; Putman & Campbell, 2010).
Pancer (2015) presented some evidence that schools and neighborhoods may contribute to both civic engagement and religious formation among adolescents. Vermeer (2010) viewed religious education at schools as a contributor to socializing young people in ways that had civic value while Francis et al. (2015) regarded church attendance and education about religion at school as factors that nurture tolerance in a religiously diverse society. In this sense engagement with religion could also be viewed as an important part of a broader civic engagement.
Research also suggested that, even after controlling for other variables, religious tradition and attendance of religious services tend to be related to indicators of civil participation (Smidt, 1999; Storm, 2015). However, other studies have also reported negative effects of religious affiliation on democratic citizenship as manifested in lower levels of political knowledge and lack of political efficacy among strongly religious people (Scheufele, Nisbet, & Brossard, 2003). Research among US adolescents (Porter, 2013) indicates that moral identity may be positively associated with voluntary service and expressive-political involvement but negatively related to traditional-political involvement. Findings from ICCS showed that lower-secondary students with higher levels of civic knowledge were less likely to endorse religious influence in society (Schulz & Ainley, 2017; Schulz et al., 2018). Results also showed that in most countries students who attended religious services held more positive attitudes towards the desirability of religious influence on society (Schulz et al., 2010 & 2018; Schulz & Ainley, 2017).
The relationship between religious attachment and civic engagement is a phenomenon, which has frequently been highlighted in other studies. This paper provides evidence about changes in religious affiliation and attitudes toward the importance of religion for society between 2009 and 2016. Further, the paper explores how these variables relate to expected participation in the future while considering also the context of the general status of religion in each participating country. Using data from an optional component of the ICCS student questionnaire, this paper investigates the extent to which lower-secondary students from 10 European countries in 2009 and 2016 were attached to a religion, endorsed its influence on society and the extent to which their engagement with religion was related to their expected future participation.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe first two cycles of the International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS 2009 and 2016) have provided a data set with unique possibilities for comparative analyses of civic-related learning outcomes (Schulz et al, 2010 & 2018). In both cycles the student questionnaire included an international option on religious affiliation and engagement, as well as on attitudes toward the influence of religion in society that was administered in a majority of participating countries.
Data from 10 European countries that participated in ICCS 2016, met IEA sampling participation standards and implemented the international option regarding religion, are included in the analyses undertaken for this paper. Further, five of these countries also participated in the corresponding option in ICCS 2009 and provide data for reviewing changes over time. As ICCS employed two-stage cluster sampling procedures, the jackknife repeated replication technique (JRR) was used for all analyses to obtain appropriate sampling errors for population means, percentages, regression coefficients, and any other population estimates.
This paper will include a descriptive analysis of the extent in the religious attachment and their attitudes toward religious influence as well as changes between 2009 and 2016. Further, it will present results from path models that predict two forms of expected political engagement in the future: electoral (e.g. becoming informed and voting in elections) and active political participation (e.g. joining political organisations, campaigning and being a candidate). The model will include as predictor variables student characteristics (gender, religious affiliation), context variables (socioeconomic background, community size, students’ attendance of religious services), student attitudes (trust in civic institutions, citizenship self-efficacy) as well as school-related variables (student’s civic participation at school, civic knowledge). In this model, endorsement of religious influence in society will be both treated as a dependent variable as well as a predictor variable for intended political participation.
To reduce the complexity of estimating this model across many countries, the path model is based mainly on manifest indicators. As civic knowledge is represented by five plausible values and a multiple-imputation procedure is applied to consider its measurement error. In the case of variables that represent latent variables, we used the IRT scales without incorporating the measurement model for each latent factor in this model. Models were estimated for each national sample separately and average results with their corresponding standard errors were also computed to provide findings at the level of the combined study.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsWhen looking at the extent of religious affiliation, engagement and endorsement of religious influence in society as well as at change between the two first cycles of ICCS in 2009 and 2016, there were considerable differences across participating countries. In some national contexts, majorities of students saw themselves as part of a religion and reported attendance at least once a month in religious services while in other countries less than half of their young people identified with a religion. Results from comparisons across the first two cycles suggest slight decreases in religious affiliation and endorsement of religious influence across countries that participated in both cycles.
The results show that, after controlling for other factors, endorsement of religious influence in society was strongly related to religious affiliation, as well as to religious service attendance, and reported participation in a religious group. Endorsement of religious influence on society was associated with religious background and also appeared to be higher in countries with greater religiosity. However, knowledge and understanding of civic principles and practices was negatively related to endorsement of religious influence on society.
There were no consistent associations between expected electoral participation and religiosity. However, expected active political participation appeared to be related to religious affiliation in almost half of the European countries that participated in ICCS 2016. In some countries, there were also weak but significant associations between religious group participation and expected active political participation.
Results also show that endorsement of religious influence in society was related to expected active political participation to a small but consistent extent. This suggests a transmitted influence of religious background on endorsement of the influence of religion in society through to expected active political participation. However, there was no evidence that endorsement of religious influence in society was related to expected electoral participation.
ReferencesCampbell, D. E. (2004). Acts of Faith: Churches and Political Engagement. Political Behavior, 26:2, 155-180.
Ekström, G., & Kvalem, T. A. (2013). Religion and Youths’ Political Engagement: A Quantitative Approach (thesis). Göteborg University: School of Business, Economics and Law.
Francis, L., Pyke, A., & Penny, G. (2015). Christian affiliation, Christian practice, and attitudes to religious diversity: A quantitative analysis among 13- to 15-year-old female students in the UK. Journal of Contemporary Religion, 30 (2), 249-263.
Guo, C., Webb, N., Abzug, R., & Peck, L. (2013). Religious affiliation, religious. Attendance and participation in social change organizations. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 42(1), 34-58.
Jones-Correa, M., & Leal, D. L. (2001). Political Participation: Does Religion Matter? Political Research Quarterly, 54:4, 751-770.
Pancer, S. M. (2015). The psychology of citizenship and civic engagement. Oxford: Oxforf University Press.
Perks T, & Haan M. (2011). Youth religious involvement and adult community participation: Do levels of youth religious involvement matter? Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(1), 107-129.
Pew Research Center (2019). Religion’s Relationship to Happiness, Civic Engagement and Health around the World.
Porter, T. J. (2013). Moral and political identity and civic involvement in adolescents. Journal of Moral Education, 42 (2), 239-255.
Scheufele, D. A., Nisbet, M. C., & Brossard, D. (2003). Pathways to Political Participation: Religion, Communication Contexts and Mass Media. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 15:3, 300-324.
Schulz, W., & Ainley, J. (2017). Religious engagement, attitudes toward religion and society, and expected future political participation among young people. Paper prepared for the 76th IEA International Research Conference in Prague, 28-30 June.
Schulz, W., Ainley, J., Fraillon, J., Kerr, D. & Losito, B. (2010). ICCS 2009 International Report. Civic knowledge, attitudes and engagement among lower secondary school students in thirty-eight countries. Amsterdam: IEA.
Schulz, W., Ainley, J., Fraillon, J., Losito, B., Agrusti, G., Friedman, T. (2018). Becoming Citizens in a Changing World. IEA International Civic and Citizenship Education Study 2016 International Report. Cham: Springer.
Smidt, C. (1999). Religion and civic engagement: A comparative analysis. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 565 (1), 176-192.
Storm, I. (2015). Religion, inclusive individualism, and volunteering in Europe. Journal of Contemporary Religion, 30 (2), 213-229. doi.10.1080/13537903.2015.1025542.
Verba, S., Schlozman, K. L., & Brady, H. E. (1995). Voice and equality: Civic voluntarism in American politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vermeer, P. (2010). Religious education and socialization. Religious Education, 105 (1), 103-116.
09. Assessment, Evaluation, Testing and Measurement
Paper
Assessing Students’ Views About Scientific Inquiry in Sweden: A Cross-sectional Study from Primary School to Upper Secondary School
Zeynep Ünsal1, Jakob Gyllenpalm1, Carl-Johan Rundgren1, Karina Adbo2, Clara Vidal Carulla3
1Stockholm University, Sweden; 2Malmö University, Sweden; 3University of Gothenburg, Sweden
Presenting Author: Ünsal, Zeynep
Scientific Inquiry (SI) is one of the overarching goals for science education all over the world (Abd-El-Khalick et al., 2004). An understanding of SI is fundamental to scientific literacy, and involves combining content knowledge, process skills and an understanding of the processes and methods scientists use to generate new knowledge (Lederman et al., 2014). This study focuses on the last mentioned, which is described as learning about scientific inquiry (Hodson, 1996), currently often disused in terms of learning about scientific practices (Osborne, 2014). However, this learning goal is often obscured due to the conflation between SI as a pedagogical strategy and as a content matter (Gyllenpalm & Wickman, 2011; Lunde, et al., 2015). Both teaching and research have generally focused on SI as either a pedagogical strategy to learn science, or on students´ abilities to conduct scientific investigations. One reason for this is the tacit assumption that students automatically learn about scientific inquiry simply by doing inquiry. Yet, this assumption has since long been challenged by a large body of research which demonstrates the need for explicit instruction about scientific inquiry as content knowledge (Lederman et al., 2019). Another problem has been the lack of valid instruments for meaningful assessment of students’ understanding about SI (Lederman et al., 2014). We address these issues by using the VASI-questionnaire (Views About Scientific Inquiry) developed for this purpose and present findings from Sweden in primary-, middle- and secondary school. The data is a subset of a larger international project (see e.g. Lederman et. al., 2019) but we focus the analysis on the progression of students’ knowledge over time in a cross-sectional study design.
In Sweden the science curriculum is specified for the school years 1-3, 4-6, 7-9 and 10-12, and divided into the subjects physics, chemistry and biology from year 1 . Students begin learning about scientific inquiry in all science subjects already from the first year. A progression in students´ knowledge is then expected as the central content related to SI successively becomes more advanced in later school years (The Swedish National Agency for Education, 2022). Despite this focus on learning about SI in the curriculum, explicit teaching about SI seems to be rare in Sweden. Yet, practical activities where students are engaged in some form of scientific inquiry has a long tradition, although these are often used as a pedagogical strategy for other educational goals (Högström et al., 2012, Lunde et al., 2015).
The purpose of this study is to contribute to an increased understanding of students’ views of SI and how this can develop over time in order to better understand how this important topic can be addressed by teachers, curriculum developers, national test designers and text book authors. In particular, the study examines the following question:
What are students’ views about scientific inquiry in Sweden in primary-, middle and upper secondary school?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedTo assess students’ views of SI Lederman et al. (2014; 2019; 2022) have developed the VASI-E (primary school) and VASI (middle- and secondary school) questionaries. Both instruments are based on aspects of SI about which there is general agreement on, and that are both possible and relevant for school children to learn These are:
(1) Scientific investigations all begin with a question and do not necessarily
test a hypothesis.
(2) There is no single set or sequence of steps followed in all investigations
(i.e., there is no single scientific method).
(3) All scientists performing the same procedures may not get the same
results.
(4) Inquiry procedures can influence results.
(5) Research conclusions must be consistent with the data collected.
(6) Inquiry procedures are guided by the question asked.
(7) Scientific data are not the same as scientific evidence.
(8) Explanations are developed from a combination of collected data and
what is already known.
The VASI-E excludes items 3, 4 and 7 and with some simplifications of the remaining five. The aspects are contextualized in the instrument with age-appropriate examples.
Data consists of 481 questionaries and 65 interviews. The VASI-E was used at the end of the 3rd grade (N=110) and the beginning of the 4th grade (N=100) in seven primary schools respectively. The VASI was used at the beginning of 7th grade (N=126) at the end of 12th grade (N=145) in five schools respectively. Coding was initiated by reaching consensus for a sample of five questionnaires in each grade level. Each student was given a code of: No Answer, Naïve, Mixed or Informed for every aspect of scientific inquiry. The coding was holistic, meaning that each questionnaire was taken as a whole and if a student expressed an understanding of an aspect of SI on an item not intended to test this particular aspect this was taken into account. In addition, 49 students in grades 3-4, and 16 students in grades 7 and 12 were interviewed to ensure that the coding of the instruments was accurate, and to obtain a deepened qualitative understanding of the students’ views about SI. During the interview students were given a copy of their own questionnaire as a primer to elaborate on their understanding of the questions and scientific inquiry in general.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsIn grades 3-4 only two aspects have over 50% informed answers. These are 5 Conclusions consistent with data (75%) and 8 Explanations based on data and prior knowledge (55%). Both aspects were assessed by questions involving dinosaurs – a topic familiar to many students, which might have contributed here. The aspect with the most naïve (40%) but also least informed answers (16%) is aspect 2 No single scientific method. The interviews indicate that many students describe all types of scientific investigations as experiments.
In 7th grade students do not achieve 50% informed answers in any aspect. The most informed are 1 Starts with a question (29,4%), 5 Conclusions must be consistent with data collected (28,6%) and 6 Procedures are guided by the question asked (27,8%). Students in the 12th have more informed views than in 7th grade but the difference is not radical. Only two aspects in the 12th have at least 50% informed answers: aspects 3 Same procedures may not yield same results (58%) and 6 Procedures are guided by the question asked (51%). In both grades 7 and 12 the most naïve answers are in 7 Data and evidence are not the same with 55,6% and 41% respectively. This is interesting as both “evidence” and “data” have overlapping and ambiguous connotations in Swedish unless care is taken to be specific. Simultaneously, grade 12 also have more naïve answers than grade 7 on five of eight aspects.
Care must be taken when comparing primary school, and middle and upper secondary school given the difference in instruments, and how these were coded relative to students’ age. However, a preliminary conclusion is that students’ views about scientific inquiry is far from satisfactory relative to the ambitions laid out in curricular documents and current understanding of this topic in science education research.
ReferencesAbd-El-Khalick, F., BouJaoude, S., Duschl, R., Lederman, N. G., Mamlok-Naaman, R., Hofstein, A., Niaz, M., Treagust, D., & Tuan, H. (2004). Inquiry in science education: International perspectives. Science Education, 88 (3), 397–419. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.10118.
Gyllenpalm, J., & Wickman, P.-O. (2011). ‘‘Experiments’’ and the inquiry emphasis conflation in science teacher education. Science Education, 95(5), 908–926.
Hodson, D. (1996) Laboratory work as scientific method: three decades of confusion and distortion, Journal of Curriculum Studies, 28:2, 115-135. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022027980280201.
Högström, P., Ottander, C., & Benckert, S. (2012). Laborativt arbete i grunskolans senare år: Lärares perspektiv [Laboratory work in secondary school: Teachers perspectives]. Nordic Studies in Science Education, 6(1), 80–91. https://doi.org/10.5617/nordina.332
Lederman, J.S., Bartels., S., Jimenez, J., Lederman, N.G., Acosta, K., Adbo, K., ... Zhu, Q. (2022). An international assessment of elementary students’ views about scientific inquiry: A study made possible with development of the views about scientific inquiry- elementary (VASI-E) assessment. Paper under review submited to Journal of Research in Science Teaching.
Lederman, J., Lederman, N., Bartels, S., Jimenez, J., Akubo, M., Aly, S., Bao, C., Blanquet, E., Blonder, R., BolognaSoares de Andrade, M., Buntting, C., Cakir, M., EL-Deghaidy, H., ElZorkani, A., Enshan, L., Gaigher, E., Guo,S., Hakanen, A., Hamed Al-Lal, S., …Zhou, Q. (2019). An international collaborative investigation of beginningseventh grade students’understandings of scientific inquiry: Establishing a baseline. Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching. Published online. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21512.
Lederman, J. S., Lederman, N. G., Bartos, S. A., Bartels, S. L., Meyer, A. A., & Schwartz, R. S. (2014). Meaningful assessment of learners’ understandings about scientific inquiry— the views about scientific inquiry (VASI) questionnaire. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 51(1), 65–83. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21125.
Lunde, T., Rundgren, C.-J., & Chang Rundgren, S. N. (2015). När läroplan och tradition möts— hur högstadielärare bemöter yttre förväntningar på undersökande arbete i naturämnesundervisningen [How lower secondary science teachers meet external expectations on inquiry-based science teaching]. NorDiNa (Nordic Studies in Science
Education), 11(1), 88–101. https://doi.org/10.5617/nordina.783.
Osborne, J. (2014). Teaching scientific practices: meeting the challenge of change. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 25(2), 177–196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10972-014-9384-1
The Swedish National Agency for Education (2022). Läroplan för grundskolan, förskoleklassen och fritidshemmet 2022 [Curriculum for the compulsory school, preschool class and the leisure-time centre 2022]. https://www.skolverket.se/undervisning/grundskolan/laroplan-och-kursplaner-for-grundskolan/kursplaner-for-grundskolan.
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