18. Research in Sports Pedagogy
Paper
Play In Physical Education – How Teachers Understand And Include Play In Their Teaching
Sondre Sæther, Petter Erik Leirhaug, Jorunn Spord Borgen
Norwegian School of Sports Sciences, Norway
Presenting Author: Sæther, Sondre
Background
The term, play, is often used as a metaphor for all kinds of human activity (Karoff, 2013a). According to Sutton-Smith (1997), play is ambiguous and influenced by people's cultural ways of thinking. In the context of Physical Education (PE), play, games and sport are central content elements (Stoltz, 2014) and play is often set against games and sport. The relationship between these terms can be described as unclear and in need of clarification in order to better understand the intention and content of PE in school (Stolz, 2014).
Play is often associated with situations without extrinsic goals characterized by self-initiation and freedom (Van Oers, 2013). And while play is associated with innocent, spontaneous and creative children in kindergarten and primary school, these are characteristics that are seldom associated with students in secondary school (Blok Johansen, 2015). However, freedom and self-initiation does not need to stand in contrast to learning. Play can lead to learning in the broadest sense and have an impact on further play (Pramling Samuelson & Asplund Carlsson, 2008). In the context of Physical Education, Mosston (1966) describes different ways of teaching PE, which shows that concepts such as self-initiation and freedom can be linked to teaching and learning.
Compared to other European countries, Norway has a long tradition of curriculum-based Physical Education in schools with grading (Borgen et al., 2019). In Norwegian curriculum reform Kunnskapsløftet 2020 (LK20) (Udir, 2019a) play is presented as essential for students’` well-being and development, and a prerequisite for creativity and meaningful learning. Within the PE curriculum, it has been said that movement activities, play and practice should be emphasized to a greater extent than before (Udir, 2019b). However, we have little knowledge of how play has been understood in PE teachers’ previous professional practices.
A literature search with the keywords "play" and "Physical Education" in the databases "ERIC", "SPORTDiscus" and "Web of Science" yielded a total of 171 hits, but only 51 of the hits dealt with "play" in PE. The search showed that there are few international studies on play in PE, and we have little knowledge of how teachers understand and include play in their PE teaching in secondary and upper secondary school.
On the basis of this background, the research questions for this study are:
- How do secondary school and upper secondary school teachers in Norway understand play in the Physical Education curriculum?
- How do teachers in secondary school and upper secondary school include play in their teaching of Physical Education?
Theoretical framework:
In this study, we use Karoff’s (2013a; 2013b) theory of play that combines various theoretical and empirical perspectives on play. This theory provides an analytical framework for empirical studies of play practices, play moods and play tools. From this theoretical framework, we use the analytical concepts of “rules” and “formulas” of play. Whilst traditionally rules are associated with games, play can be linked to formulas to a greater extent. The formulas appear in situations where play is happening, which implies a form of improvisation where the formulas can play out in different ways (Karoff, 2013b). This means that participants in the play activity can play without there being "unanimity" about the content, but rather, a "consensus" (Karoff, 2013b). Accordingly, play has a certain form of freedom as formulas can be interpreted differently among the participants. Conversely, rules provide guidelines for the game, and often have a set goal (Karoff, 2013b). Play and games, however, must not be seen as two separate categories, but rather in motion between each other. We are particularly interested in how PE teachers understand and integrate play in teaching practices.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedBased on the research questions and the comparative lack of research about play in the context of PE, qualitative semi-structured interviews with Physical Education teachers and observation of Physical Education lessons with the same teachers were chosen as appropriate methodological procedures.
The sample consists of two teachers who teach at secondary school and two teachers who teach at upper secondary school. Two teaching sessions per teacher of approximately two hours each were observed.
The teachers were given no guidance on how the teaching should take place beyond the fact that play should be central to the sessions. The observation was carried out as non-participant observation (Clarke et al., 2021) with a focus on noting as much as possible of what the teachers said and did in order to identify what kind of rules or formulas were created in the teaching. Following the observation, a semi-structured interview was conducted with the aim of gaining an insight into the teachers' perceptions and descriptions of play in physical education (Brinkman, 2018). The interviews were based on a theoretically framed interview guide and often based on situations that had already been observed in the teaching. The purpose of retrieving situations from the observation was to give the teachers the opportunity to reflect on the decisions they made in the teaching in order to gain a deeper insight into their understandings of play and how they included play in their teaching in PE. In this way observation and interview complement each other in the study (Clark et al., 2021).
The analysis of the data material was carried out according to what Braun and Clarke (2006; 2019) describe as a thematic analysis.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe analysis process is still ongoing and not completed. The preliminary findings indicate that the teachers in the study value the free and self-initiating play which we can put in context with Karloff’s (2013b) descriptions of "formulas". But when the teachers teach PE, they seem to integrate play to a greater extent by the teachers themselves deciding the content and guidelines for the pupils' play activities in the lessons. We can see this in connection with Karloff’s (2013b) description of rules, where the students have to follow the instructions and not do something else. This may be linked to international research that suggests that teacher-led teaching with a focus on rules and skill learning is the most common in physical education (Curtner-Smith et al., 2001; Cothran et al., 2005). This can hinder students from creating meaningful structures in the play activity themselves. This shows how incorporating play into an educational context often involves tensions (Kuschner, 2012).
Teachers in this study say that they would like to have more focus on play without predefined rules, but that this is challenging to implement, amongst other reasons, due to assessment and grading.
The teachers also mention effort and physical activity either directly, or implicitly, as a prerequisite for participation in play. This can be seen in the context of research which highlights that physical education is practiced as an activity subject (Kirk, 2010).
ReferencesBlok Johansen, M. (2015). Forestillinger om børn og unge. BARN – Forskning om barn og barndom i Norden, 31(3-4), 19-34.
Borgen, J. S., Moen, K. M, Hallås, B. O., Løndal, K. & Gjølme, E. G. (2019). Physical Education and Sport Studies in Norway. In: Naul, R. & Scheuer, C. (Eds.). Research on Physical Education and School Sports in Europe. Meyer and Meyer Verlag.
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative research in psychology, 3(2), 77-101. DOI: 10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2019). Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis, Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 11:4, 589-597, DOI: 10.1080/2159676X.2019.1628806
Brinkman, S. (2018). The interview. In: Denzin, N. K & Lincoln, Y, S. (Eds.), The sage handbook of qualitative research. (s. 576-599). Sage publications.
Clark, T., Foster, L., Sloan, L. & Bryman, A. (2021). Bryman's Social Research Methods (6.utg). Oxford University Press.
Cothran, D., Kulinna, P., Banville, D., Choi, E., Amade-Escot, C., MacPhail, A., Macdonald, D., Richard, J-F., Saramento P. & Kirk, D. (2005). A Cross-cultural investigation of the Use of teaching styles. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 76, 193–201.
Curtner-Smith, M., Hasty, D., & Kerr, I. (2001). Teachers’ use of productive and reproductive teaching styles prior to and following the introduction of national curriculum physical education. Educational Research, 43, 333–340.
Karoff, H. S. (2013a). Play practices and play moods. International Journal of Play, 2(2), 76 -86.
Karoff, H. S. (2013b). Om Leg: Legens medier, praktikker og stemninger. Akademisk Forlag
Kirk, D. (2010). Physical Education Futures. Routledge
Kuschner, D. (2012). Play is natural to childhood but school is not: The problem of
integrating play into the curriculum. International Journal of Play, 1(3), 242-249.
Mosston, M. (1966). Teaching physical education. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Pramling Samuelsson, I., & Asplund Carlsson, M. (2008) The Playing Learning Child: Towards a pedagogy of early childhood, Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 52(6), 623-641. DOI: 10.1080/00313830802497265
Stolz, S.A. (2014). The Philosophy of Physical Education: A New Perspective. Routledge.
Sutton-Smith, B. (1997). The Ambiguity of play. Harvard University Press.
Udir (2019a). Læreplan i kroppsøving (KRO01 05). https://www.udir.no/lk20/kro01-05
Udir (2019b, 18. november). Hva er nytt i kroppsøving? https://www.udir.no/laring-og-trivsel/lareplanverket/fagspesifikk-stotte/nytt-i-<fagene/hvaer-nytt-i-kroppsoving
Van Oers, B. 2013. Is it play? Towards a reconceptualisation of role play from an activity theory perspective. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal. 21(2): 185–198.
18. Research in Sports Pedagogy
Paper
How Pupils’ Playfulness Creates Possibilities for Pleasure and Learning in Physical Education
Iselin Aartun1, Karen Lambert2, Kristin Walseth1,3
1Oslo Metropolitan University, Norway; 2Monash University, Melbourne VIC, Australia; 3Volda University College, Volda, Norway
Presenting Author: Aartun, Iselin
Decades of previous research has addressed the need for changes in physical education where embodied experiences and learning are emphasized (Wrench and Garrett 2015; Wright 2000). Accordingly, we align with the ongoing call for a ‘corporeal turn’ (Smith 2007, 66) in physical education, towards a more holistic understanding of learning and experience as embodied and emplaced (Pink 2011). The concept of embodiment has roots in phenomenological philosophy. As such, understanding the body as the ground of subjective experiences (Standal 2020) deconstructs the notion of a mind/body divide. The theory of emplaced learning involves considering embodied learning as always embedded in the world around us, which we always interact with (Pink 2011).
Pleasure, enjoyment, and meaningful experiences are significant for the individual’s relationship to their own body and for their desire for further participation in physical activity (Wellard 2012; Beni, Fletcher, and Ní Chróinín 2017). Siedentop considered playful activities as ‘important forms of inherently meaningful human experience’ (1972, 209). The fact that many pupils struggle in ‘gaining a love of movement’ (Pringle 2010, 130) is a reason why further research about what pupils experience as pleasurable and meaningful is needed. Exploring the pupils’ embodied and emplaced experiences may lead to insights around what they learn in physical education. Such insights may contribute to create pedagogies where meaningful and pleasurable learning experiences are educational goals (Lambert 2020; Pringle 2010; Wellard 2012). Building on this, we ask whether a pedagogy that gives room for playfulness may be a starting point for physical education being perceived as more meaningful and pleasurable.
In this presentation I present empirical findings from a sensory ethnography that aims to explore pupils’ playfulness and their pleasurable experiences in physical education. The research question is ‘How do pupils create possibilities for pleasure in physical education by being playful and responsive to their environment, and what opportunities for learning are afforded?’
To interpret how possibilities for pleasure are created, we draw upon phenomenological perspectives on playfulness (Hyland 1977) and affordances (Gibson 1986). Hyland proposes a phenomenological stance on play, which he operationalizes as responsive openness (Hyland 1977). Openness involves being aware of, and open to, the possibilities that arise in your environment. Responsiveness is explained as the ability to act on the possibilities that emerge through the activity. The concept of affordances (Gibson 1986) can be described as how characteristics of the physical environment encourage action. Affordances are understood as the possibilities that emerge from our interaction with our environment, responsive openness can be described as the way in which we respond to such affordances.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedSensory ethnography is a way of doing ethnography ‘that takes as its starting point the multisensoriality of experience, perception, knowing and practice’ (Pink 2015, xi). Sensory ethnography is not a study of the senses, rather what we get access to through studying how and what the participants see, hear, smell, feel and taste.
The study occurred in one 10th grade class, for a 5month semester in an urban school in Oslo, Norway. 23 pupils (15 female, 8 males; 14-16 years) participated in the study. Author 1 was a participant observer in all physical education lessons (36 lessons, 54 hours) and collected data via fieldnotes (100 pages) and semi-structured interviews (17 pupils, average 23 minutes per interview). Observation focused on recording the pupils’ action (and inaction), body language, engagement, reactions to sensory perceptions, responses to other’s sensory perceptions, what they seemed to like and dislike. The interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim by Author 1 and a research assistant. The interviews revolved around the participants’ experiences from the activities that Author 1 had participated in. Interviews therefore involved an opportunity to validate the observations and preliminary findings.
Author 1 chose to be an active participant observer and to take on the role of a pupil (as best as they could) as an attempt to be as close as possible to the pupils’ embodied and emplaced experiences. To minimize the impact on the research, Author 1 always let pupils take the lead and be the initiators of activity. Author 1 focused on asking open, descriptive questions so that the pupils could decide what they wanted to share. Still, we acknowledge and highlight that no researcher is ever neutral, and the presence is noticed and felt by the participants.
During the interpretation process, we have followed what Pink (2021) calls the ethnographic hunch. This can be described as the moments in research when we encounter something ‘that deepens what I think I know, sparks an ethnographic-theoretical dialogue, turns around my thinking, and creates a stand of investigation through my research, analysis, or both’ (Pink 2021, 30).
We have combined the meaning making of our ethnographic hunch with an abductive approach to data analysis (Tavory and Timmermans 2014). We alternated between inductively exploring the ethnographic hunches (Pink 2021), inductively and collectively coded the data (Eggebø 2020) and deductively coding the data based on the various theoretical lenses previously presented.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsFindings and conclusion
During the fieldwork, Author 1 observed that in many lessons, there seemed to be little engagement, motivation, and enjoyment. This awareness sparked a hunch which initiated further investigation of where, when, what, who and why the feeling of indifference occurred. This resulted in the observation of some distinct shifts in the pupils’ moods which appeared occasionally in lessons as glimpses of joy, engagement, and excitement. An abductive analytic process materialized a pattern where the pupils seemed to be bored by many of the teacher-given tasks, and that they experienced (more) pleasure in movement when they themselves actively changed the tasks towards more playful variants. An extract from the field notes may describe such a change:
The pupils seemed bored during an outdoor warm up task before parkour. They were supposed to walk on hands and feet, playing Tag, but the effort was low. Suddenly, the energy shifted as they started rolling down a grassy hill. They laughed and ran up to roll again several times.
The shifts towards more playful and pleasurable activities did not appear to be the result of the pupils’ mental reflections, considerations, and discussions. Rather, pleasure seemed to emerge because of their playful response to the affordances in the landscape. Thus, new opportunities for embodied and emplaced learning experiences were created.
Findings from our study suggest that playfulness may contribute to forming a positive cycle. Playfulness may lead to pleasurable experiences, which can create positive anticipations for future activity. In this way, previous pleasurable experiences may contribute to emplaced learning like movement exploration and skill acquisition. Expanding the range of movements may enable increased awareness of the affordances the environment offers, and thus create new opportunities for playfulness (and pleasure).
ReferencesBeni, Stephanie, Tim Fletcher, and Déirdre Ní Chróinín. 2017. "Meaningful Experiences in Physical Education and Youth Sport: A Review of the Literature." Quest 69 (3):291-312. doi: 10.1080/00336297.2016.1224192.
Eggebø, Helga. 2020. "Kollektiv kvalitativ analyse." Norsk sosiologisk tidsskrift 4 (2):106-122.
Gibson, James J. 1986. The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hyland, D. 1977. "“And That Is The Best Part of Us:” Human Being and Play." Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 4 (1):36-49. doi: 10.1080/00948705.1977.10654126.
Lambert, Karen. 2020. "Re-conceptualizing embodied pedagogies in physical education by creating pre-text vignettes to trigger pleasure ‘in’ movement." Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy 25 (2):154-173. doi: 10.1080/17408989.2019.1700496.
Pink, Sarah. 2011. "From embodiment to emplacement: re-thinking competing bodies, senses and spatialities." Sport, Education and Society 16 (3):343-355. doi: 10.1080/13573322.2011.565965.
Pink, Sarah. 2015. Doing sensory ethnography. 2nd ed. ed. Los Angeles, Calif: Sage.
Pink, Sarah. 2021. "The Ethnographic Hunch." Experimenting with Ethnography: A companion to analysis:30-40.
Pringle, Richard. 2010. "Finding Pleasure in Physical Education: A Critical Examination of the Educative Value of Positive Movement Affects." Quest 62 (2):119-134. doi: 10.1080/00336297.2010.10483637.
Siedentop, Daryl. 1972. Physical Education. Introductary analysis. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers.
Smith, Stephen J. 2007. "The First Rush of Movement: A Phenomenological Preface to Movement Education." Phenomenology & Practice 1 (1):47-75.
Standal, Ø. F. 2020. "Embodiment: philosophical considerations of the body in adaptive physical education." In Routledge Handbook of Adapted Physical Education, edited by S. R. Hodge, Justin A. Haegele and Deborah R. Shapiro, 227-238. New York, NY: Routledge.
Tavory, Iddo, and Stefan Timmermans. 2014. Abductive analysis: Theorizing qualitative research. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
Wellard, I. 2012. "Body-reflexive pleasures: exploring bodily experiences within the context of sport and physical activity." Sport, Education and Society 17 (1):21-33. doi: 10.1080/13573322.2011.607910.
Wrench, Alison, and Robyne Garrett. 2015. "PE: It's Just Me: Physically Active and Healthy Teacher Bodies." International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education (QSE) 28 (1):72-91.
Wright, Jan. 2000. "Bodies, Meanings and Movement: A Comparison of the Language of a Physical Education Lesson and a Feldenkrais Movement Class." Sport, Education & Society 5 (1):35-49.
18. Research in Sports Pedagogy
Paper
The Influence of Body Expression on the Development of Creative Intelligence of Physical Education Students
Andreea Vidaci, Maria Teresa Pascual Galiano, Lilyan Vega-Ramírez, Juan Manuel Cortell Tormo, Maria Alejandra Avalos Ramos
University of Alicante, Spain
Presenting Author: Vidaci, Andreea;
Pascual Galiano, Maria Teresa
Body expression (BE) is thought to be the oldest form of communication, with humans using it to create, express, and communicate feelings, emotions, and ideas in a deliberate and aesthetic manner (Aparicio et. al., 2019). A recent study affirms that BE is a reliable method to understand the most natural meaning of a human’s expressiveness, and is it achieved by body awareness, self-knowledge, and educational transformation (Megias, 2020). It also represents the artistic, expressive component of physical activities that employ innovative methodological approaches aimed at promoting autonomous learning and social skills (Redondo, et al.,2019). Through BE, students can acquire attitudes, concepts, as well as procedures that they can apply to their daily physical activity. (Vega-Ramírez et al., 2022).
BE relies on a series of elements as musicality, students’ features, the visual environment (lighting, space) (Sánchez y Ordás, 2011), and together with social encounters and human connections (Leach & Stevens, 2020) are vital in the evolution of creative thinking.
The creative process involved in the artistic and athletic practice of students has recently begun to be studied (Valverde-Esteve, 2020). In terms of creative practitioners of BE were likely to obtain high values in aspects of creativity such as fluency, flexibility, and expressiveness (Iglesias et al., 2014). In this context, BE has begun to be considered a necessary tool in the school curriculum to promote creativity (Megias, 2020).
In terms of gender, some differences were observed in terms of creativity and are most likely influenced by the different opportunities available to men and women and kinds of experiences both genders are likely to have (Baer, 2008). Some studies had found that men prefer sports that are dominated by physical contact and strength while women present more interest and motivation to carry out artistic and language activities (dance, gymnastics, etc.) (Mašanović, 2019).
The current need to provide innovative knowledge in different contexts of action turns creativity into a fundamental component for the broader development of the human personality (Sanchez et al, 2017). Therefore, creativity takes on greater importance during university training, when students prepare for future tasks, they will have to perform as teachers/trainers, and many situations require novel options and solutions. These arguments are in line with the acquisition of key competence for university students, established by the European Higher Education Area (Sanchez et al, 2017). Due to the lack of a correct "true-false" answer and the motivational factor required in creative performance, the evaluation and assessment of creativity posed a significant challenge for specialists (Corbalán et. Al., 2015). The specialists focused on the development of motor creativity through BE (Iglesias et al., 2014) and the development of creative thinking or the creative intelligence was less studied.
The aim of this study was to analyze the role of Body Expression on the development of creative intelligence and the differences between genders by students in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences. We hypothesized that creative intelligence is improved by participating in BE activities.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedSample
The sample was made of 49 participants aged 20.48 ± 3.62 years (women and men 21.56 ± 3.02 and 20.55 ± 3.89 years, respectively) from the second year of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences degree, during the academic year 2019–2020. Participants were informed that the collected data was used for research purposes. The informed consent was obtained, following the approval of the ethics committee of the University of Alicante (UA-2020-11-21) and the personal data protection guidelines.
Instrument
The instrument used was the CREA manual of creative intelligence (Corbalán, et. al., 2015). This is a simple method of assessing creativity based on a person's ability to generate questions. Aside from its accessibility, CREA stands out for its diversity and adaptability to different age groups: children, teenagers, and adults. The sheets CREA A and CREA B were used collectively by writing method for the corresponding age group of our sample (over 17 years old). The authors of the test provided a percentile scale for the Spanish sample in order to categorize the scores in levels of creativity.
Procedure
The initial CREA test corresponding to sheets A and B was used at the beginning of the course, along with an anonymous socio-demographic questionnaire that collected data on age and gender. Each participant was given a code that was used to link the pre and post-test results. The information came from CREA test guidelines, and the students were told that the test consisted of asking as many questions as possible about an image. The participants had four minutes to complete each sheet, and with the information provided at the start, the total time for the evaluation was ten minutes.
The intervention was performed over 21 h of BE lessons for 7 weeks/sessions.
Statistical analyses
Descriptive statistics (mean and SD) were calculated for all dependent variables. For all statistical tests, a probability level of p<0.05 denoted statistical significance. Statistical analyses were conducted with the SPSS ® (v26.0; IBM®, Armonk, NY, USA).2.4.
The percentile score (PS) was determined by using the scale of the Spanish sample provided by the test authors.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsIn terms of the results obtained from the investigation of creative evolution through BE, there was a general increase in the second evaluation compared to the first, prior to the intervention. It began with a general mean direct score (DS) of 23.12 and an SD of 7.19, and after participating in the BE activity, there was a significant improvement (t = 4.523; p 0.001; ES = 0.4) until reaching a general mean of 26.20 and an SD of 7.51.
We observed that all the subjects were initially classified as low (1-25 PS) or medium (26-74 PS) and that only two of them advanced to the high level of creativity (75–99 PS).
In the gender comparison, women started with a higher score than men (24.20 mean and 7.804 SD), and although an improvement in their final average could be observed (26.47 mean and 7.990 SD), it was not significant (t = −2.041 p = 0.061 ES = 0.2). Men, on the other hand, in the pre-test achieved a lower mean (22.65 mean and 6.971 SD), but in the post-test was noted a significant increase (t = −4.029 p < 0.001 ES = 0.6) of these values (26.09 mean and 7.412 SD).
A slight difference in levels of creativity could be observed in the pre-test, where more than half of the women were in the medium level, while a smaller portion of men reached the same level. The percentages in the post-test were surprisingly balanced between the two genders, indicating a higher improvement in the levels of creativity in men, who even outperformed women in each level.
To conclude, the students evolved in terms of creative intelligence while practicing BE. Men have shown a greater capacity for creative growth than women since women presented higher scores initially.
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5. Leach, J., & Stevens, C. J. (2020). Relational creativity and improvisation in contemporary dance. Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 45(1), 95-116., doi:10.1080/03080188.2020.1712541.
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