33. Gender and Education
Poster
Gender Grading Gap in Mathematics. A Multilevel Analysis on Primary Schools
Giovanna Zanolla1, Franck Petrucci2
1University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland, Department of Education and Learning, Switzerland; 2République et Canton de Genève, Département de l'instruction publique, de la formation et de la jeunesse (DIP) Service de la recherche en éducation
Presenting Author: Zanolla, Giovanna;
Petrucci, Franck
Gender educational gap is among the most debated topics in the field of educational studies. International standardized tests such as PISA and TIMSS highlight that in several countries girls outperform boys in reading whereas the latter get higher scores in mathematics (OECD, 2015). For what concerns grades, certain authors underline that in reading, mathematics and science boys who perform equally as well as girls get a lower grade and this less favourable treatment disappears when non cognitive skills are considered (Cornwell et al., 2013). Indeed, there is evidence that teachers’ grading practices do not only reflect the objective level of skills achieved by students, but also the perceived students’ effort, motivation, and even their behaviour (Bowers, 2011) and girls, which are more often reported to possess better social skills and to be more conscientious (Perander et al., 2020), self-disciplined (Duckworth and Seligman, 2006) and engaged in class activities (Van Houtte, 2020) would be rewarded with higher grades (Cornwell et al., 2013). Other authors have found no evidence of discrimination against boys (Hinerrich et al., 2010), whereas other studies have put into evidence teachers’ gender-stereotyped belief about math ability according to which boys are more logical than girls and the latter are less mathematically inclined (Tomasetto, 2019; Giberti, 2019). This belief on one side leads to girls’ underconfidence in mathematics and to their failure in achieving their full potential (Carlana, 2019), on the other side it can create a sort of positive discrimination in favours of girls as teachers would over-assess them to encourage them in a discipline in which they are considered weaker (Terrier, 2020).
This contribution is aimed at examining whether girls attending the last year of the primary school in the Swiss canton of Ticino are given a different grade in mathematics than boys with the same mathematical skills. Skills are, in this case, measured by a score obtained in a math standardized test administered to the whole population cohort (ca. 3,000 pupils) in the school year 2020/21. Grading biases can be traditionally studied by means of a systematic comparison between grades delivered by teachers and the results in standardized tests for the same year of schooling that measure students' objective skills (Hoge & Colardaci, 1989).
Ticino is a particularly interesting area to investigate as, differently from most of the cantons, which adopt a selective school system, it is characterized by a relatively comprehensive school system in which tracking is postponed to the 8th grade (and limited to two subjects, German and mathematics). Despite a later and less pronounced curricular differentiation is normally associated with a lower gender segregation in higher education (Imdorf et al., 2015) and despite the smaller educational gap compared to the other cantons, a remarkable horizontal segregation, which is clearly visible both in the upper secondary schools (in the high school and in vocational training) and in tertiary education, distinguishes Ticino (Zanolla, in press). As it is known horizontal segregation in education leads to an underrepresentation of women in the most rewarding scientific, technical, engineering, and mathematical (STEM) occupations (Herbaut & Barone, 2021). Teachers ‘assessments might have a part of responsibility as, as literature has widely shown, grades affect students’ motivation, self-concept and effort in education and influence their subsequent educational choices and outcomes (Carlana, 2019).
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedIn order to understand whether being a girl influences the mathematics grade in the last year of the primary school, a multilevel model has been developed. Students' grading is likely to be affected by their personal characteristics, as gender, but also by the context in which it takes place (Leckholm, 2011). The multilevel model, developed in the early 1980s to address the fundamental issue of the interaction between individuals and their environment, includes both control variables referring to the pupils (economic, social and cultural status, age, mother tongue, behaviour grade in the school final report and the score in the above-mentioned math standardized test) and to their class (average score obtained by the class in the math standardized test, teacher’s gender and teacher’s type of contract – full or part-time; other variables such as the social composition of the class and its size and teachers’ working seniority were tested and excluded because their effect was not significant). The analysis has involved 2,238 children from 181 primary school classes (the entire cohort of children enrolled in the fifth and final year of public primary school in Ticino has been considered, except for children attending multigrade classes). Mathematics grade as well as the other variables included in the model are contained in the database of the GAGI application (Gestione Allievi Gestione Istituti - Pupil Management, Institute Management) run by the Ticino Department of Education, Culture and Sport, which contains relevant social and personal details for all primary and secondary school students in Ticino, as well as the training they take part in for each school year, the grades achieved in each subject, number of absences, end-of-year results, etc. and socio-anagraphic information concerning their teachers. The math standardized test was created on appointment of the Ticino Department of Education, Culture and Sport by a team of researchers, local experts in maths and teachers from primary and lower secondary schools, with the goal to provide political decision-makers with information for monitoring the education system and teachers, head teachers and inspectors with detailed information regarding trends in their classrooms and schools.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe multilevel analysis shows that, other things being equal, girls achieve a lower grade in mathematics than boys. However, although the effect of gender is statistically significant, it remains small (Cohen f2 < 0.02). The only variable that has a large effect (Cohen f2 ≥ 0.35) is the pupil's result in the standardized test, i.e., the greater the pupil's ability in mathematics, the higher the grade. This result illustrates the fact that the teacher's judgment of a student's academic performance, of which the grade is the expression, is, on average, strongly linked to objective academic performance even if there is a great variability from one teacher to another. The behaviour grade also has a positive impact on the mathematics grade, but once again the effect is small. The pupil's disadvantaged social background, the age, and the average academic level of the class in mathematics exert instead a small negative effect, whereas the pupil’s mother tongue, the gender of the teacher and the type of contract of the latter do not play any significant effect. This analysis constitutes the starting point of a broader study on the teachers’ concepts about grades and the criteria they use for attributing grades, which has the aim of trying to open the black box behind the evaluation outcome. This study will also constitute an opportunity to investigate the gender stereotypes of primary and lower secondary school teachers in the Canton of Ticino.
ReferencesBowers, A. J. (2011). What's in a Grade? The Multidimensional Nature of What Teacher-assigned Grades Assess in High School. Educational Research and Evaluation, 17(3), 141-159.
Cornwell, C., Mustard, D. B., & Van Parys, J. (2013). Noncognitive Skills and the Gender Disparities in Test Scores and Teacher Assessments. Journal of Human resources, 48(1), 236-264.
Carlana, M. (2019). Implicit Stereotypes: Evidence from Teachers’ Gender Bias. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 134(3), 1163-1224.
Duckworth, A. L. & Seligman, M. E. (2006). Self-discipline Gives Girls the Edge: Gender in Self-discipline, Grades, and Achievement Test Scores. Journal of educational psychology, 98(1), 198.
Giberti, C. (2019). Differenze di Genere in Matematica: dagli Studi Internazionali alla Situazione Italiana. Didattica della matematica, (5), 44-69.
Herbaut, E., & Barone, C. (2021). Explaining Gender Segregation in Higher Education: Longitudinal Evidence on the French Case. British Journal of sociology of Education, 42(2), 260-286.
Hinnerich, B. T., E. Höglin, and M. Johannesson (2011). Are Boys Discriminated in Swedish High Schools? Economics of Education Review, 30 (4): 682–690.
Hoge, R. D., & Coladarci, T. (1989). Teacher-Based Judgments of Academic Achievement: A Review of Literature. Review of Educational Research, 59(3), 297–313.
Imdorf, C., Hegna, K., Eberhard, V., & Doray, P. (2015): Educational Systems and Gender Segregation in Education – A Three-Country Comparison of Germany, Norway & Canada. In C. Imdorf, K. Hegna, & L. Reisel (Eds.), Gender Segregation in Vocational Education (Vol. 32, pp. 83-122). Bingley: Emerald Insight.
Lekholm, A. K. (2011). Effects of School Characteristics on Grades in Compulsory School. Scandinavian journal of educational research, 55(6), 587-608.
OECD (2015). The ABC of Gender Equality in Education: Aptitude, Behaviour, Confidence. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Perander, K., Londen, M., & Holm, G. (2020). Anxious Girls and Laid-back Boys: Teachers’ and Study Counsellors’ Gendered Perceptions of Students. Cambridge Journal of Education, 50(2), 185-199.
Terrier, C. (2020). Boys Lag behind: How teachers’ Gender Biases Affect Student Achievement. Economics of Education Review, 77, 101981.
Tomasetto, C. (2019). Gender Stereotypes, Anxiety, and Math Outcomes in Adults and Children. In Mammarella, I. C., & Caviola, S. and Dowker, A. (Eds.). Mathematics Anxiety: What Is Known, and What is Still Missing. Routledge.
Van Houtte, M. (2020). Understanding the Gender Gap in School (Dis) engagement from Three Gender Dimensions: the Individual, the Interactional and the Institutional. Educational Studies, 1-19.
Zanolla, G. (in press). Equità. In Castelli, L. & Plata, A. (Eds.) Scuola a Tutto Campo. Indicatori del Sistema Educativo Ticinese. SUPSI-DFA, Locarno.
33. Gender and Education
Poster
Intersectionality between Gender and Migration Background in Predicting Mathematical Abilities
Tobias Bauer, Roman Zviagintsev, Nele Kampa
University of Vienna, Austria
Presenting Author: Bauer, Tobias
Mathematical abilities are indispensable for science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). However, there are challenges for the develop and assurance of high ability levels. Due to demographic reasons, we see a growing emergence of heterogeneous students (UNHCR, 2019). To this end, studies still show differences due to gender (Cascella, 2020a), socioeconomic status (SES; Bodovski et al., 2020) and to migration background (Cascella, 2020a) in mathematics achievement. These differences lead to inequality of educational opportunities and outcomes which predicts continuing inequality of social opportunities. Therefore, it is still important for the education policy to examine these factors (Boudon, 1974).
To disentangle interdependencies between different factors contributing to inequality, we applied an intersectional approach as proposed in Cascella (2020a) to address heterogeneity of students and social inequalities in education. Effects of intersectionality of different social identities becomes important in educational research and helps to understand these counteracting variables. The model of intersectionality describes multiple characteristics of a person which function in isolation. While Crenshaw (1989) introduced intersectionality as grounded in Black feminist and critical race theories, Harris and Patton (2019) describe it as a traveling theory in different academic disciplines.
Regarding differences with respect to the heterogeneity of students, there is still an ongoing discussion about the gender gap across different countries. Some studies show higher scores for male than for female students in mathematics and the opposite pattern in language proficiency assessments (Matteucci & Mignani, 2021). Other studies show that even though the gender gap still persists, equality increases. In some countries we even find no or a reversed gap (Meinck & Brese, 2019). Generally, we observe an underrepresentation of women working in STEM fields (Steot & Geary, 2018).
Differences in mathematics achievement are also connected to migration background and are mostly explained by language proficiency (Prediger et al., 2018). Research in English speaking countries shows an effect of reading proficiency on mathematics and science performance (Noble et al., 2014). We offer an intersectional approach to investigate challenges regarding mathematics achievement as described in the following studies:
(a) Female Black and Latina schoolchildren show lower attainment values in mathematical motivational beliefs as compared to their male peers (Hsieh, 2021).
(b) “Girls’ disadvantage in mathematics increases, thus suggesting that such a disadvantage is mediated by girls’ reading skills, higher than boys’ reading skills” (Cascella, 2020a, p. 137).
(c) Regarding mathematical achievement, boys benefit more from high SES than girls (Cascella, 2020b).
In our research we focus on data from Austria, a country which experiences an emergence of heterogeneity in schools. In Austria, mathematical achievement is based on an ability model which shows some similarities to other European countries (KMK, 2003) and which consists of four mathematical action-related abilities [MARA] (representing & modelling, calculating & operating, interpretation, reasoning & justification), which vary in terms of complexity (BIFIE, 2013).
Based on the Austrian ability model and research about the relationship between reading skills and mathematics (Cascella, 2020a; Prediger et al., 2018) we assume a difference between more language-complex (interpretation, reasoning & justification) and less language-complex abilities (representing & modelling, calculating & operating). Therefore, we use an intersectional approach framework with a focus on mathematical achievement in our population-based study. We investigate how gender, migration background and SES affect MARA as well as the differences in interaction effects of gender, migration background and SES on MARA with respect to the level of language complexity of the MARA?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedWe use data from a population-based study conducted in Austrian schools by the Federal Institute for Quality Assurance [Institut des Bundes für Qualitätssicherung im österreichischen Schulwesen]. The data were collected as part of the educational standardized assessment in mathematics for eighth-graders (on average, 13-14 years old) in 2017. The assessment involved 72 704 students from 3 998 classes in 1 386 lower secondary schools. There are two different secondary school types: general secondary school (Allgemeine Pflichtschule [APS], 47 672 students) and academic secondary school (Allgemeinbildende höhere Schule [AHS], 25 032 students). Students attending AHS will be enrolled until twelfth grade and afterwards may enrol at university. Students attending the APS will be enrolled until eighth grade and then students change school for the compulsory ninth grade.
Additionally, the students filled out questionnaires and provided information on their gender, family migration background, first language, and socioeconomic background. Performance data were based on the four MARA (representing & modelling, calculating & operating, interpretation, reasoning & justification). We will use the plausible values for these MARA. In order to explore intersectionality, we will investigate interaction effects between gender and migration, gender and SES as well as migration and SES on the four MARA.
Because of the nested structure (individual, class, school) we plan to run a multilevel regression model for each of the four MARA and for the overall performance in mathematics. To answer our research questions, we:
(a) First, we observe for each model how gender, migration background and SES affect MARA and overall performance.
(b) Second, we compare the four models with the different MARA as a dependent variable to each other in order to detect differences in interaction effects of gender, migration background and SES across MARA.
(c) Third, we investigate specific interactions with gender differences applying multigroup analyses for boys and girls for each MARA.
Our analyses will show any differences between the less language-complex and the more language-complex abilities of MARA in terms of their relation to student background. We are also going to look for differences in model fit separately for boys and girls. Through our analyses, we will reveal whether boys and girls of differing SES and migration background have a higher/lower likelihood of getting into a high achieving group. We will perform all analyses in MPlus 8.8.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsIn order to answer our research questions, we are expected the following results based on previous findings.
(a) The gender difference in mathematical performance could either still show a gender gap or support the hypothesis that the equality is increasing (Meinck & Brese, 2019). We assume that migration background and low SES will have a negative effect on MARA and overall performance.
(b) The difference between girls with and without migration background will be higher in the more language-complex MARA than in the less language-complex.
(c) The difference between boys with and without migration background will be higher in the less language-complex MARA than in the more language-complex.
The expectation of the outcomes in (b) and (c) are based on the findings of Cascella (2020a) and Hsieh et al. (2021) in a way that migration background mediates the relationship between gender and mathematical performance.
Nowadays it is of educational significance that we know more about the influence of intersectionality regarding characteristics of students’ background which do not only function in isolation. Our research could bring some insides about required action in policy and practice to ensure equal opportunities (OECD, 2018). One of the practical implications of our study would be to raise awareness among educational researchers and teachers about heterogeneity and intersectional effects on students’ achievement. For example, a possible approach could be the concept of differentiated instruction to support the students’ diverse learning needs. Homogenous and heterogeneous grouping of students in one classroom with the same learning goals could be an economically favorable possibility in terms of teachers’ resource (Smale-Jacobse et al., 2019).
ReferencesBoudon, R. (1974). Education, opportunity, and social inequality: Changing prospects in western society. Wiley.
Bodovski, K., Munoz, I. G., Byun, S., & Chykina, V. (2020). Do education system characteristics moderate the socioeconomic, gender and immigrant gaps in math and science achievement? International Journal of Sociology of Education, 9(2), 122-154. https://doi.org/10.17583/rise.2020.4807
Bundesinstitut für Bildungsforschung, Innovation & Entwicklung des österreichischen Schulwesens [BIFIE]. (2013). Bildungsstandards für Mathematik 8. Schulstufe. https://www.iqs.gv.at/_Resources/Persistent/5ede9449cc32b3f3fec1e6d164a752469205784d/bist_m_sek1_kompetenzbereiche_m8_2013-03-28.pdf
Cascella, C. (2020a). Exploring the complex relationship between students' reading skills and their performance in mathematics: A population-based study. Educational Research and Evaluation, 26(3-4), 126–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2021.1924790
Cascella, C. (2020b). Intersectional effects of socioeconomic status, phase and gender on mathematics achievement. Educational Studies, 46(4), 476–496. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2019.1614432
Crenshaw, K. W. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989, 139–168.
Harris J. C., & Patton, L. D. (2019). Un/Doing intersectionality through higher education research. The Journal of Higher Education, 90(3), 347–372. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2018.1536936
Hsieh T., Simpkins, S. D., & Eccles, J. S. (2021). Gender by racial/ethnic intersectionality in the patterns of adolescents’ math motivation and their math achievement and engagement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 66, 101974. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.101974
KMK (2004). Bildungsstandards im Fach Mathematik für den Mittleren Schulabschluss. Wolters Kluwer.
Matteucci M., & Mignani, S. (2021). Investigating gender differences in mathematics by performance levels in the Italian school system. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 70, 101022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2021.101022
Meinck, S., & Brese, F. (2019). Trends in gender gaps: using 20 years of evidence from TIMSS. Large-Scale Assessments in Education, 7(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-019-0076-3
Noble T., Rosebery, A., Suarez, C., Warren, B., & O'Connor, M. C. (2014). Science assessments and english language learners: Validity evidence based on response processes. Applied Measurement in Education, 27(4), 248–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/08957347.2014.944309
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2018). The future of education and skills: Education 2030 (E2030 Position Paper). Paris, France: OECD Publishing.
Prediger, Wilhelm, N., Büchter, A., Gürsoy, E., & Benholz, C. (2018). Language proficiency and mathematics achievement. Journal für Mathematik-Didaktik, 39(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13138-018-0126-3
Smale-Jacobse A. E., Meijer, A., Helms-Lorenz, M., & Maulana, R. (2019). Differentiated instruction in secondary education: A systematic review of research evidence. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2366. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02366
Stoet, G., & Geary, D. C. (2018). The gender-equality paradox in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education. Psychological Science, 29(4), 581–593. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617741719
UNHCR. (2019). Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2018. Geneva: UNHCR.
33. Gender and Education
Poster
Is Love the Developmental Ceiling for Girls? A Narrative Inquiry on Chinese Adolescent Romantic Experience
Ruini Huang1, Yongjiu Kang2
1Ghent University, Belgium; 2Bejng Normal Univesity, China
Presenting Author: Huang, Ruini
Hall described adolescence as a "genetic period of storm and stress" (Hall 1972). Submersed in this storm and stress, adolescents gradually open their view to the world and go on a search for a more intimate experience of their peers in their community. That is to say, romantic involvement (RI) typically starts and increases in adolescence (Furman 1999). Simone de Beauvoir regards the young woman's process through adolescence as centred on "awaiting Man". (Simone 1956). In fact, Adolescent Romantic Love has been a popular theme in literature and is an integral part of our daily life.
In China, however, Adolescent Romantic Love is a sensitive issue and is commonly forbidden in most schools. Few adults take this issue into discussion with their up growing children. Even so, boys and girls inevitably have yet frequent encounters with Adolescent Romantic Love. Without formal emotional education and the guidance from teachers or parents, some severe problems arise for Chinese young adolescents when pursuing intimate relationships, such as being trapped into in depression emotions. The challenge facing women is extra daunting. For once adolescents' romantic relationship has been discovered, girls are usually perceived as the ones most deserving blame (most at fault). In previous studies, little attention has been paid to the experience of love by female adolescents, which has caught my attention. The first questions that come to mind are about the real romantic experience of girls in adolescence, and what it means for female adolescents’ personal growth?
This study attempts to inquire into their individual experiences and explore the possible relationships between adolescent romantic love and their personal growth in China’s context. Following are the sub-questions: 1) What is the female experience in adolescence? 2) What is the interactive situational mechanisms of adolescent love and how adolescent girls act when they are involved in romantic love? 3) What impact does adolescent romantic
love have on female adolescents’ expressions, social interaction, and academic growth?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThis research requires a narrative methodology. Semi-structured qualitative interviews with 12 female university students as the primary research participants were conducted with three male students as reference participants. Students were invited to retrace their adolescent experience. All participants would sign informed consent after being told the research purpose and research details. All participants can withdraw from the research at any time. Then the researcher will delete the related information of these participants from the research.
In this research, the orientation of the type of narrative is to people's own stories of their experiences and their retrospective meaning-making, which sometimes even focuses on the way those stories represent culture, politics, and norms. In this case, all participants are adult women and men, and the narrative is retrospective reflections on their romantic experiences when they were adolescents. The stories, then, reflect that meaning-making over the years, not "in the moment" experiences.
Qualitative methods were adopted to analyze the data. The analytical process followed a grounded way and focused on the following:
1) Women's adolescent experience, which includes body image, academic life, emotional world, etc. In this part, the life story of each participant is presented.
2) The interactive situational mechanism of adolescent romantic love. According to the stories, an interpretation and conclusion were made to outline the process of how adolescent romantic love happens.
3) The character of adolescent love and female choices and actions.
4) The impact of adolescent love on female personal growth.
In this research, the orientation of the type of narrative is to people's own stories of their experiences and their retrospective meaning-making, which sometimes even focuses on the way those stories represent culture, politics, and norms. In this case, all participants are adult women and men, and the narrative is retrospective reflections on their romantic experiences when they were adolescents. The stories, then, reflect that meaning-making over the years, not "in the moment" experiences.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsTheme 1: In physical development, girls leave behind childhood and grow into maturity, as well as acquire sexual awareness. Adolescent girls' exploration of sex is internal, which is happened to find their own body feeling. Whilst the boy's sexual impulse has a kind of outward conquest, it contains a kind of aggression.
Theme 2: Girls' recognition of love is based on imagination and relationship building. The public space and everyday life of the school provide a matrix for adolescent love. Waiting, Ambiguity, and Uncertainty are essential characteristics of germination and further development of love.
Theme 3: Adolescent love is often disparaged, and one commonly fails to recognise it as an archetype of the individual's establishment of identity and exploration of intimacy. Dividing the girls' love-involvement in this research constituted two basic types of adolescent love: in and -out of the peer group.
Theme 4: There are two passive aspects girls come to encounter: 1)the boy's attempt to interrupt the girl, trying to entangle the girl in a romantic relationship. Meanwhile, the involvement of sexual behaviour brings risks to girls. 2) The school and parents' longing to provide refuge to girls and the corollary moral requirements of "being a girl" cast a shadow on the growth of Females.
Adolescent love, as an intimate emotion leading to the individual world, is a kind of shy or active, full-hearted, or uncontrollable sprout for women, and it is a tendency of impulse and emotion. For some girls, adolescent love is a growth ritual which has changed their lives and their perception of themselves. Its charm lies in the unknown, in the establishment of relationships, and in providing a way to explore oneself while being a way to bridge one's shortcomings. It may empower female growth. However, the existing educational scene still excludes intimacy.
ReferencesEnglish reference:
[1] Camille Paglia. Sexual Personae— Art and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson[M]. Vintage Books.1997:521
[2] Worell, Judith. Encyclopedia of Women and Gender: Sex Similarities and Differences and the Impact of Society on Gender[M]. San Diego, CA: Academic, 2001. Print55
[3] Williams, Thomas Rhys. “ADOLESCENCE: An Anthropological Inquiry (Book).” Journal of Comparative Family Studies[J], vol. 24, no. 2, Summer 1993, pp. 258–259
[4] Shelly L. Gable and Harry T. Reis. “Intimacy and the Self: An Iterative Model of the Self and Close Relationships,” in Patricia Noller and Judith A. Feeney. Eds. Close Relationships: Functions, Forms, and Processes [M]New York: Psychology Press. 2006:211-225.
[5] Aron and E. N. Aron. 1986. Love and the Expansion of Self: Understanding Attraction and Satisfaction[M]. New York: Hemisphere.
[6] Giordano,P.C. W.D.Manning M.A. Longmore. Adolescent Romantic Relationships: An Emerging Portrait of Their Nature and Developmental Significance. In A.C CrouterA.Booth ( eds. ) , romance and Sex in Emerging Adulthood: Risks and Opportunities[M]Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum,2006
[7] Williams, L. R., & Hickle, K. E. I know what love means: Qualitative descriptions from Mexican American and white adolescents[J]. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 2010.20(5), 581-600.
[8] Bouchey, H. A., & Furman, W. Dating and romantic experiences in adolescence. In G. R. Adams & M. Berzonsky (Eds.). The Blackwell handbook of adolescence. 2003(pp. 313-329). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
[9] Sippola, L. K., Buchanan, C. M., & Kehoe, S.. Correlates of false self in adolescent romantic relationships[J]. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 2007.36(4), 515-521.
[10] Feiring, C.. Other-sex friendship networks and the development of romantic relationships in adolescence. [J]Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 1999.28, 495- 512.
[11] Halpren, C. T., . Biological influences on adolescent romantic relationships and sexual behavior. In P. Florsheim (Ed.)[M], Adolescent romantic relations and sexual behavior: Theory, research, and practical implications[M].2003 (pp. 57-84). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
[12] O’Sullivan, L. F.. The social and relationship contexts and cognitions associated with romantic and sexual experiences of early-adolescent girls[J]. Sexuality Research and Social Policy,2005. (3), 13-2
[13] Jovchelovitch, Sandra. Narrative, Memory and Social Representations: A Conversation Between History and Social Psychology[J]. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science 2012.46(4): 440-456
[14] Clandinin, D. J. and Connelly, F. Michael Narrative Inquiry Experience and Story, in Qualitative Research[M], San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers 2003:20
33. Gender and Education
Poster
The Why, How and when of LGBT+ Education in Primary Schools in England.
Emma Whewell, Helen Tiplady, Hannah Shrive
University of Northampton, United Kingdom
Presenting Author: Whewell, Emma;
Tiplady, Helen
This study aims to contribute to the field of primary education and inclusive practices by discussing when and how lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender plus (LGBT+) education is being taught and what primary school teachers need to feel confident in teaching LGBT+ content.
Despite changes in the English National Curriculum, the LGBT+ community and associated laws in the UK, it is still not compulsory for LGBT+ content to be taught in English primary schools. This can cause conflict for school leaders and teachers in deciding how and when to teach LGBT+ education and an inconsistent approach regarding LGBT+ content and teaching (DfE, 2019a, p.15; Glazzard and Stones, 2020, p.2). This discordance raises issues regarding what should and should not be taught in primary schools, from the perspectives of both teachers and parents; the matter of an LGBT+ inclusive curriculum is becoming a controversial topic.
This poster will explore the year group in which teachers feel LGBT+ education should first be taught, the areas that impact teachers’ confidence, and the most effective strategies that can be used to deliver content. This study employed an online survey of primary school teachers in England and semi structured interviews to evaluate the overarching question of why, how, and when LGBT+ content could be taught in primary schools.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThis study used an online questionnaire given to all participants via opportunity sampling, in this case – 58 primary school teachers from a range of schools across England and years Reception through to Year 6. Due to the nature of the research, participants were asked to disclose their gender identities and sexualities so that it could be identified whether this influenced their responses. From this, it was identified that twenty-six percent of participants identified as a sexuality that was not heterosexual, and two percent of participants did not identify as the gender they were assigned with at birth. To also allow for more interpretivist responses, one-to-one semi structured interviews were used (n=3). These participants were of a range of ages, worked in different year groups and all identified differently by gender and sexuality. Interviews were transcribed and a process of inductive coding was used, which involved categorising the data into different themes or labels so that patterns can be identified, examined and discussed (Cohen et al., 2018, p.645). The same approach was used to code the qualitative data from the open questionnaire questions (Figure 1). Ethical guidance from BERA (2018) was used and ethical approval given by the University of Northampton and considered aspects such as consent, withdrawal, confidentiality and the safe storage of data (Cohen et al., 2018, p.111). As well as these key ethical considerations, several other ethical aspects were important due to the nature of the topic, such as the sensitivity of the topic, limiting bias alongside actions to be taken in the case of ethical dilemmas.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThis study intended to explore why, how, and when to deliver LGBT+ education in English primary schools but the is much to contribute to wider LGBT+ education and awareness more widely. Most teachers feel LGBT+ content should be taught at some point within primary education, and most of these feel that it should begin being taught from Reception or Year 1 as this cultivates an environment of respect and acceptance. When considering strategies to deliver LGBT+ content, this study identified that teachers’ feel PSHE lessons or circle time are the most effective strategies to deliver LGBT+ content, however teachers would appreciate a specific scheme of work to support them in delivering this. Furthermore, participants expressed that use of literature and integration of LGBT+ content across the curriculum are also effective strategies as this normalises LGBT+ topics. Half of participants felt confident in teaching LGBT+ content, however, many teachers still felt they need to grow in confidence; the lack of training and resources and a fear of parental opposition being the key factors that concern them (DePalma, 2018, p.9; Barnes and Carlile, 2018, p.33). There is a need for resources to be developed to allow teachers and trainee teachers to build their confidence in teaching age-appropriate activities. Initial teacher training can begin this process by considering the broadness of opportunity to be inclusive and looking for opportunities to build LGBT+ content into their curriculums. Training providers should work closely with school-based mentors to allow trainee teachers the opportunity to experience how content is taught and the culture of the school can be representative of a range of communities.
ReferencesBarnes, E. and Carlile, A. (2018) How to transform your school into an LGBT+ friendly place: A practical guide for nursery, primary and secondary teachers. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
British Educational Research Association (2018) Ethical Guidelines for Educational Research. London: BERA.
Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2018) Research Methods in Education. 8th ed. Oxon: Routledge.
DePalma, R. (2018) Gay penguins, sissy ducklings... and beyond? Exploring gender and sexuality diversity through children’s literature. In: Blackburn, M., Clark, C. and
Department for Education (2019a) Relationships Education, Relationships and Sex Education (RSE) and Health Education [online]. London: Department for Education. Available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/908013/Relationships_Education__Relationships_and_Sex_Education__RSE__and_Health_Education.pdf [Accessed 20th September 2020]
Department for Education (2019b) Relationships education, relationships and sex education (RSE) and health education: FAQs. gov.uk [online]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/relationships-education-relationships-and-sex-education-rse-and-health-education-faqs [Accessed 20th September 2021]
Glazzard, J. and Stones, S. (2020) Relationships Education for Primary Schools (2020): A Practical Toolkit for Teachers. St Albans: Critical Publishing.
|
