14. Communities, Families and Schooling in Educational Research
Poster
Primary Teachers' Learning Experiences in the Pursuit of Family-school partnerships in a Multilingual Context.
Ria Goedhart1, Eddie Denessen2, Maaike Hajer1, Cok Bakker1
1Utrecht University of Applied Sciences/Utrecht University Graduate School of Humanities; 2Radboud University
Presenting Author: Goedhart, Ria
Family-school partnerships in a multilingual context
Research indicates that cooperation between parents and school contributes to the academic and social-emotional development of children (Bakker et al., 2013; Epstein, 2020). Governments therefore encourage teachers to invest in family-school partnerships (De Bruïne et al., 2014). However, teachers feel ill-prepared to work together with parents (De Bruïne et al., 2014, 2018; Epstein & Sanders, 2006; Hannon & O’Donnell, 2021). Even more in the education of newcomer students, teachers experience many problems in the pursuit of family-school partnerships (FSP), such as the lack of a shared language, differences in school systems and upbringing and different expectations regarding mutual accessibility, availability and responsibilities.
Analyses of the difficulties that teachers experience in the pursuit of FSP in multilingual contexts reveal that teachers attribute challenges to linguistic, cultural, attitudinal, practical, socio-economic and political factors (Anthony-Newman, 2019; Bakker et al., 2013; Bouakaz, 2007). Researchers recommend teachers to adopt a personal approach (Bouakaz, 2007; Georgis et al., 2014), encourage parental input (Anthony-Newman, 2019) and adopt a responsive attitude to the home language and cultural backgrounds (Bakker et al., 2013; Georgis et al., 2014). However it is not entirely clear what this means concretely for action, nor what this promising approaches mean for teacher preparation.
Teacher training
Over the years several researchers have advocated for curriculum improvement in teacher education with attention to the importance of FSP, improving communication skills, school-wide approaches and policies, the role and attitude of teachers in entering into partnerships and building valuable relationships with parents based on equality (Epstein, 2020; De Bruïne et al., 2018; Hannon & O’Donnell, 2021; Kassenberg et al., 2016). Positive attitudes towards parents and the presence of well-developed communication skills would be crucial for teachers to enter into FSP (Esptein & Sanders, 2006). Nevertheless, the improvements are hardly applied due to an overcrowded curriculum (Mutton et al., 2018).
Meanwhile student teachers wish to learn how to build meaningful relationships with parents on the basis of equality and to improve their communication skills. They want to expand their competences ‘by gaining real-life experiences with parents, and by talking to and learning from more experienced teachers in service’ (De Bruïne et al., 2018, p. 392). In addition, by sharing good practice experiences, more information can be collected about practical tools, responsive training and support (Epstein, 2020).
Practical experiences appear to be an important resource in preparing student teachers. However, it is known that practical experiences alone do not necessarily improve learning. They become important to the learning process when meaning is given to them. By reflecting on practical experiences, they become learning experiences (Stappers et al., 2018). To achieve deeper learning experiences, it is recommended to reflect on positive experiences instead of negative ones (Korthagen, 2012).
Research question
Though research on FSP often focuses on what teachers in mainstream primary education need and on the problems experienced by teachers in multilingual contexts, little is known about how teachers can prepare for FSP in a multilingual context and what this means for their attitude and communication. Student teachers and researchers (De Bruïne et al., 2018; Epstein, 2020) indicate that practical experiences of experienced teachers can be a valuable resource. To find out how these learning experiences can contribute to the professionalization of teachers it is important to investigate how experienced teachers have developed in this.
Our study therefore focuses on the following research question: What are the learning experiences of experienced primary school teachers in the pursuit of family-school partnerships in a multilingual context with regard to their attitude and communication?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedIn 2021/2022, an interpretive study was conducted on the learning experiences of primary school teachers in pursuing FSP in a multilingual context. The aims of the study were first to describe teachers’ learning experiences that can give direction to teacher professionalization and second to operationalize the concepts 'attitude' and 'communication' in multilingual contexts to support teachers and student teachers in pursuing FSP in practice.
A narrative approach was chosen to collect the data (Creswell, 2009). Narrative interviews were held with ten experienced primary school teachers of newcomers. The respondents were asked to tell three successful experience stories, which characterize their attitudes and communication in the pursuit of FSP in a multilingual context. Then reflection question related to their experiences, attitudes and communication were asked, such as 'What characterizes your attitude in the success stories you've shared?'. Through these reflection questions, the experiences were discussed on a deeper level.
The respondents worked at five different primary schools ranging from special schools for newcomer education to regular schools with a few newcomer students. All schools had FSP as a focus, which means that extra attention is paid to professionalization, facilities and activities aimed at FSP. Respondents were invited to participate in the survey because they were seen by their management and team members as examples of pursuing FSP in a multilingual context.
The qualitative data analysis was performed in two phases. In the first phase, a thematic analysis (Clarke & Braun, 2013; Verhoeven, 2020) was performed on the fully transcribed interviews. The fragments were linked to the concepts ‘learning experiences’, ‘attitude’ and ‘communication’. Subsequently, all fragments of the concepts ‘attitude’ and ‘communication’ were coded and thematized. This involved both an inductive and a deductive process (Verhoeven, 2020). An audit trail was used to describe the steps that were taken and to justify the choices in the analysis process (Akkerman et al., 2008).
A chronological analysis was used to describe the learning experiences (Creswell, 2009). A distinction was made between learning experiences with regard to attitude and learning experiences with regard to communication. The chronological analysis leads to a description of insights that have been built up over time and provides insight into the learning process. The insights were summarized by the researcher and presented to the respondents for a member check. This added a validation check to the analysis (Creswell & Miller, 2000).
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe description of experienced teachers' learning experiences provides a rich database of illustrations of solutions to problems experienced by teachers in the pursuit of FSP in a multilingual context. The insights of the respondents sometimes differ greatly, for example with regard to the pursuit of equality. Respondent J. says about this: 'I have learned that equality in contacts with parents is not always possible. Sometimes my attitude is omniscient and I am very clear about the expectations and possibilities'. On the opposite, respondent A. says: 'I have learned to give parents the space to make their own decisions, perhaps less effective, but I think it is important that they are empowered’.
The description of the learning experiences also shows that investing in cooperation with parents in the education of newcomers is a continuous learning process. In the eyes of the respondents, this requires a learning attitude that is characterized by motivation to invest, daring to be vulnerable, daring to make mistakes, learning to deal with surprises, sharing practical experiences with the team, reflecting on experiences, having self-knowledge, being solution-oriented and willing to change.
The operationalization of the concepts 'attitude' and 'communication' each lead to six themes. The six themes that were extracted from the fragments relating to attitude are:
1. Being inviting
2. Being understanding
3. Being diligent
4. Being willing to learn
5. Being responsible
6. Being cooperative
The six themes that were extracted from the fragments relating to communication are:
1. Choosing the languages
2. Choosing the purpose
3. Choosing the channel
4. Choosing the setting
5. Choosing the conversation techniques
6. Choosing the non-verbal communication
During the presentation we would like to discuss what the results of this research can mean for further research and teacher professionalization.
ReferencesAkkerman, S., Admiraal, W., Brekelmans, M., & Oost, H. (2006). Auditing Quality of Research in Social Sciences. Quality & Quantity 42(2), 257–274.
Anthony-Newman, M. (2019). Parental involvement of immigrant parents: a meta-synthesis. Educational Review, 71(3), 362-381.
Bouakaz, L., & Persson, S. (2007). What hinders and what motivates parents' engagement in school? International Journal about Parents in Education, 1(0), 97-107.
De Bruïne, E., Willemse, T.M., Franssens, J., Van Eynde, S., Vloeberghs, L., & Vandermarliere, L. (2018). Small-scale curriculum changes for improving preservice teachers’ preparation for Family-School Partnerships. Journal of Education for Teaching, 44(3), 381-396.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychologie. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
Bakker, J., Denessen, E., Dennissen, M., & Oolbekking-Marchand, H. (2013). Leraren en ouderbetrokkenheid. Een reviewstudie naar de effectiviteit van ouderbetrokkenheid en de rol die leraren daarbij kunnen vervullen. Nijmegen: BSI/Radboud Docenten Academie, Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen (NWO-project: 411-11-662).
Creswell, J.W. (2009). Research Design. California: SAGA Publications.
Creswell, J.W., & Miller, D.L. (2010). Determining Validity in Qualitative Inquiry. Theory Into Practice 39(3), 124-130.
Epstein., J.B. [EERA edu]. (2020, Augustus 21). Imperative Connections: Using Research to Develop Programs of School, Familiy and Community Partnerships for Student Success in School. Retrieved Januari 15, 2023 from https://youtu.be/Z050jwYrVXQ.
Epstein, J. L., & Sanders, M.G. (2006). Prospects for Change: Preparing Educators for School, Family, and Community Partnerships. Peabody Journal of Education 81(2), 81–120.
Georgis, R., Gokiert, R.J., Ford, D.M., & Ali, M. (2014). Creating inclusive parent engagement practices: Lessons learned from a school community collaborative supporting newcomer refugee families. Multicultural Education, 21(3-4), 23-27.
Hannon, L., & O’Donnell, G.M. (2022). Teachers, parents, and familyschool partnerships: emotions, experiences, and advocacy. Journal of Education for Teaching, 48(2), 241–255.
Kassenberg, A., Petri, D., & Doornenbal, J. (2016). Competenties van leraren in het samenwerken met ouders: een literatuurstudie. Pedagogiek 36(3), 211-226.
Korthagen, F. (2012). Over opleiding en reflecteren: ongemakkelijke waarheden en wenkende Perspectieven. Tijdschrift voor Lerarenopleiders, 33(1), 4-11.
Mutton,T., Burn, K., & Thompson, I. (2018). Preparation for familyschool partnerships within initial teacher education programmes in England. Journal of Education for Teaching, 44(3), 278-295.
Stappers, J., Van Hout, M., Adams, T., & Koster, B. (2018). Van een positieve praktijkervaring naar een leerervaring. Tijdschrift voor Lerarenopleiders, 39(2), 69-81.
Verhoeven, N. (2020). Thematische analyse. Amsterdam: Boom.
14. Communities, Families and Schooling in Educational Research
Poster
Measuring Science-Related Beliefs and Attitudes of Parents: Building Students’ Future Science Task Value
M. Gail Jones1, Katherine Chesnutt2, Megan Enness3, Daniel Macher4, Manuela Paechter4
1NC State University, United States of America; 2Appalachian State University; 3University of Florida; 4University of Graz
Presenting Author: Jones, M. Gail
There is increasing evidence that the family plays a critical role in the development of students’ interests and career aspirations (e.g., Howard & Reynolds, 2008; Johnson & Hull, 2014). Within science education, researchers are showing that family engagement with science is linked to students’ perception of science as a future career (e.g., Author, 2021). To better understand how family engagement influences the career aspirations of youth, the present study examined factors that are related to parents’ perception of the future value of science. By understanding how parents’ perceptions of science, we can design and build more effective educational programs to enhance interest and engagement with science.
Researchers have shown that parent involvement in education and youth can contribute to higher school achievement (Lee, 1993; Sui-Chu & Willms, 1996), fewer behavioral problems at school (Lee, 1993), lower dropout rates (McNeal, 1999), higher grades in school (Muller, 1993) and enhanced aspirations to attend college (Cabrera, & La Nasa, 2000). Understanding the influences of the family on career interests and aspirations is particularly crucial in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) where there are significant discrepancies in course enrollment and career aspirations for many minority groups (National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, 2017). However, there is limited research that examines how family engagement and attitudes in STEM influence students’ interests (e.g., Aschbacher et al., 2010; Ferry et al, 2000; Gilmartin et al, 2006).
Archer et al., (2012) applied the concepts of science capital and family habitus (“the ways and settings in which families operate… [that] encompass[es] values and everyday practices” p. 886) to measure factors that were associated with youth science aspirations. They found that the attitudes of the parents were key to the formation of youth’s science career aspirations. A study by Maltese and Cooper (2017) reported that when parents were involved in STEM-related experiences, their children were more likely to choose a STEM field than students whose parents were not involved. The influence of parental beliefs and expectations on the development of interests and career aspirations is an understudied area and this study begins to fill this gap by proposing a new tool to assess parental experiences, expectations for their child, and science achievement value.
A recent study (Author, 2021) used expectancy value theory to examine factors that are influential in the career aspirations of youth. This study found exposure to STEM practitioners, tool access, and STEM experiences were associated with higher science achievement value and perceptions of family science achievement value. The study found evidence that a student’s perception of the value the family places on science was a key factor in determining interests and career goals. These findings led us to develop the assessment described here to measure parents’ science capital (access to experiences and science-related tools) and the family habitus for science (the degree to which the family sees science as something they do).
Research Question
In the previous studies described above we developed and validated assessments (NextGen Scientist Survey) to measure expectancy value factors for elementary and middle school youth (Author 2020; 2021). The present study builds on these assessments with the development of a new parallel version that investigates these factors with parents. The research question explored in this study was: What is the factorial structure of the NextGen Scientist Survey- Parents? Being able to assess the expectancy value factors for parents and youth can inform the field about how parent’s values and expectations are related to those held by their children. Furthermore, this assessment documents science capital and family habitus variables that can contribute to expectancy values.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedIn order to examine the structure of the survey we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis of the data. The constructs for the survey were congruent with the research literature on expectancy value, science capital, and family habitus.
Data Sources
The parent version of The NextGen Scientist Survey was designed to be a parallel version of the previously validated NextGen Scientist Survey Middle School (Author A) and the NextGen Scientist Survey Elementary (Author B). The final survey was established after review by an expert panel and a pilot study with 5 parents.
The final NextGen Science Survey- Parents, consists of 39 items that are assessed on a 5-point Likert scale for the degree to which the respondent identifies with science and has self-efficacy for science (12 items), sees STEM as a future career for their child (4 items), along with whether or not they had experiences with science as a child (4 items), childhood career considerations (3 items), science communication experiences (7 items), active science experiences as an adult (5 items), and science tool experiences (4 items) (see Table 2 for items).
The Sample and Descriptive Statistics
Parent participants were contacted at afterschool programs sponsored by a non-profit group for youth in grades 3-5 who are from underserved groups located in several communities in a southeastern state of the US. The participants identified as 17.7% female, 81.6 % male, 53.4% White, 33.9% Black, 6.1% Hispanic, 1.4% Asian, and 5.1% Other race/ethnicity. The parents indicated they lived in rural (39.4%), suburban (35.0%), and urban (25.3%) areas.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) resulted in a 7-factor solution that best fit the data (see Strijbos et al., 2021).
The n=275; A/C 24709.85; B/C 25223.43; X2= 1276.85; df=677; CFI=0.902; RMSEA= 0.057; SRMR= 0.056.
RMSEA and SRMR are within the desired boundary. CFI has an adequate fit value . The seven factors show acceptable to good reliability with Cronbach's α between .629 ≤ αt ≤ .935. Item to factor loadings and fit indices were satisfactory.
The CFA shows that the NextGen Scientist Survey- Parents has seven correlated factors that have been shown to influence future task value for science. The instrument allows for the measurement of self-efficacy and academic identity (Science Achievement Value), parent perceptions of future career options for their child (Future Science Task Value for My Child), measures of prior childhood experiences (Childhood Science Experiences), careers the parent considered when a child (Childhood Science Experiences), experiences reading and discussing science (Science Communication Experiences) and finally, the scales Active Science Experiences and Science Tool Experiences assessed the parent’s experiences with science as well as using science-related materials. All of these items assess elements of science capital that have been shown to contribute to career aspirations and interest in science (Archer et al., 2012).
This study demonstrates that we can reliably measure components of science capital and family habitus that contribute to interests and career aspirations for science. This session will engage researchers in considering how to use this type of assessment in designing more effective educational programs as well as thinking about ways to honor cultural capital while building social capital. With the growing recognition of the role of the family in the development of interests and career aspirations this instrument can open up new studies to examine different factors related to the development of youth and parental expectations over time.
ReferencesArcher, L., DeWitt, J., Osborne, J., Dillon, J., Willis, B., & Wong, B. (2012). Science aspirations, capital and family habitus: How families shape children's engagement and identification with science. American Educational Research Journal, 49(5), 881–908. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831211433290
Aschbacher, P. R., Li, E., & Roth, E. J. (2010). Is science me? High school students’ identities, participation, and aspirations in science, engineering, and medicine. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 47(5), 564–582.
Cabrera, A. F., & La Nasa, S. M. (2000). Overcoming the tasks on the path to college for America's disadvantaged. New directions for institutional research, 2000(107), 31-43.
Ferry, T. R., Fouad, N., & Smith, P. (2000). The roles of family contest in a social cognitive model for career-related choice behavior: A math and science perspective. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 57, 348-364.
Howard, T. C., & Reynolds, R. (2008). Examining parent involvement in reversing the underachievement of African American students in middle-class schools. Educational Foundations, 22, 79-98.
Johnson, U. Y., & Hull, D. M. (2014). Parent involvement and science achievement: A cross-classified multilevel latent growth curve analysis. The Journal of Educational Research, 107(5), 399-409.
Lee, S. A. (1993). Family structure effects on student outcomes. In B. Schneider & J. S. Coleman (Eds.), Parents, their children, and school (pp. 43 –75). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics. (2017). Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering: 2017. Special Report NSF 17–310. Arlington, VA. www.nsf.gov/statistics/wmpd/.
Maltese, A. V., & Cooper, C. S. (2017). STEM pathways: do men and women differ in why they enter and exit? AERA Open, 3(3), 1–16.
McNeal Jr, R. B. (1999). Parental involvement as social capital: Differential effectiveness on science achievement, truancy, and dropping out. Social forces, 78(1), 117-144.
Muller, C. (1993). Parent involvement and academic achievement: An analysis of family resources available to the child. In B. Schneider & J. S. Coleman (Eds.), Parents, their children, and school (pp. 77–113). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Plasman, J. S., Gottfried, M., & Williams, D. (2021). Following in their Footsteps: the Relationship Between Parent STEM Occupation and Student STEM Course taking in High School. Journal for STEM Education Research, 4(1), 27-46.
Strijbos, W., Pat-El, R., & Narciss, S. (2021). Structural validity and invariance of the feedback perceptions. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 68, 100980.
Sui-Chu, E. H., & Willms, J. D. (1996). Effects of parental involvement on eighth-grade achievement. Sociology of education, 126-141.
14. Communities, Families and Schooling in Educational Research
Poster
What Should Teachers Know and Be Able to Do to Increase Parent Involvement: Perspectives of Dutch Parents and Teachers.
Peter Vries
University of Groningen (the Netherlands)
Presenting Author: Vries, Peter
According to research, parent involvement is important for the development of children (Bakker, Denessen, Dennissen, & Oolbekkink-Marchand, 2013). Teachers must therefore be prepared during training for cooperation with parents and increasing parental involvement in order to know how they can give pupils optimal opportunities through parental involvement. What competences do they need for this and to what extent is parental involvement a theme in primary school teacher training? Several (mainly American) studies indicate that teachers are insufficiently prepared for working with parents (Ferrara & Ferrar, 2010; Caspe, Lopez, Chu & Weiss, 2011; Evans, 2012; Lindberg, 2014). Three studies on the Dutch situation paint a comparable picture (Bakker, Denessen, Kerkhof & Kloppenburg, 2009; De Bruïne et al, 2014; Willemse, Vloeberghs, De Bruïne & Van Eynde, 2016). Preparation for parental involvement appears to be largely dependent on the preferences of individual teacher educators (De Bruïne et al, 2014).
In my PhD research at the University of Groningen I am looking for the competences teachers need to be able to collaborate with parents and to increase parental involvement. This concerns competencies that emerge from previous empirical research, but also competencies that are found in focus group interviews among teachers and parents. I my PhD research I compare the competencies I found with curricula of various teacher training colleges in the Netherlands. In a poster presentation at the Emerging Researchers' Conference, I focus on the competencies that teachers and parents believe are needed. These competencies have been distilled from focus group interviews with teachers and parents. These interviews provide insight into the expertise required for parent involvement from the perspective of teachers and parents, but also in the experiences of teachers and parents.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe main question of my PhD research is: does the curriculum of teacher training in primary education in the Netherlands meet the requirements that different forms of parental involvement place on the competences of teachers? To answer this main question, one of the sub-questions of my research is: which competencies of teachers do teachers and parents consider important to promote parental involvement? To answer this sub-question I worked with two types of expert panels (focus groups): three expert panels of teachers (N= 23) and three expert panels of parents (N= 22). The panels provided insight into what teachers need to know and be able to do to increase parent involvement from the perspectives of parents and teachers. The parents and teachers who participated in the expert panels came from both schools that focused on the theme of parent involvement and schools that did nothing specifically with the theme of parent involvement. To get a representative picture, teachers and parents were recruited from all over the Netherlands (e.g. from villages and urban contexts), represented each age group of the children and came from schools with different backgrounds (public schools, Christian schools, special education schools , Montessori schools and so on). During these panel discussions, the vignette method was used in the first part. The vignettes were intended to allow participants to discuss their ideas. The vignettes gave an overview of concrete situations that can occur at school or at home and that have to do with the quality of the cooperation and communication between teacher and parents. As a researcher, I reconstruct the competences based on the conversations between the teachers themselves and between the parents. In the second part of the panel discussions, teachers and parents respectively were asked which competencies of teachers they consider important to promote parental involvement.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsA preliminary analysis of the focus group interviews shows that both teachers and parents particularly value communicative skills. They both mention, for example, a good listening attitude, being able to connect with the target group of parents with whom the teacher works, being able to empathize with the parents and dealing with diversity. When it comes to knowledge, only knowledge of different cultures is mentioned as important for understanding parents. Another first conclusion is that teachers and parents often have different expectations of the role that parents should play. Teachers sometimes have expectations that according to parents are not fitting for their role, for example practicing topography at home with the child or going on field trips. This influences opinions of teachers about what a teacher should be able to do, for example convince parents of the necessity of homework and enthuse them for school activities. Parents indicate that teachers must be able to make their expectations clear and communicate clearly. Teachers indicate that self-knowledge is important for teachers in the communication with parents. If you don't know yourself, it's difficult to empathize with someone else and it's difficult to set boundaries, for example towards parents. According to teachers, you need to know what your norms and values are.
ReferencesBakker, J.T.A., Denessen, E.J.P.G., Kerkhof, M. & Kloppenburg, H.L.(2009). Teacher - Parent Partnerships: Preservice Teacher Competences and Attitudes during Teacher Training in the Netherlands. International Journal About Parents in Education,3(1), 29-36.
Bakker, J.T.A., Denessen, E.J.P.G., Dennissen, M., & Oolbekkink-Marchand, H. (2013). Leerkrachten en ouderbetrokkenheid. Een reviewstudie naar de effectiviteit van ouderbetrokkenheid en de rol die leraren daarbij kunnen vervullen. Nijmegen: Radboud Universiteit.
Bruïne de, E.J., Willemse, T.M., D’Haem, J., Griswold, P. Vloeberghs, L. & Eynde, S. van (2014). Preparing teacher candidates for family–school partnerships. European Journal of Teacher Education, 37(4), 409-425.
Caspe, M., Lopez, M.L., Chu, A., Weis, H.B. (2011). Teaching the Teachers: Preparing Educators tot Engage Families for Student Achievement. Issue Brief National PTA & Harvard Family Research Project, May 2011.
Evans, M.P. (2013). Educating preservice teachers for family, school, and community engagement. Teaching Education, 24(2), 123-133.
Ferrara, M.M. & Ferrar, P.J. (2005). Parents as Partners: Raising Awareness as a Teacher Preparation Program. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 79(2), 77-82.
Lindberg, E.N. (2014). Final Year Faculty of Education Students’ Views Concerning Parent Involvement. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 14(4), 1352-1361.
Willemse, T.M., Vloeberghs, L., Bruïne. E.J. de & Eynde, S. van (2016). Preparing teachers for family–school partnerships: a Dutch and Belgian perspective. Teaching Education, 27(2), 212-228.
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