33. Gender and Education
Paper
Representations of Gender in School Mathematics: A Study of Upper-Primary National Textbooks in the Republic of Cyprus
Constantinos Xenofontos
Oslo Metropolitan University, Norway
Presenting Author: Xenofontos, Constantinos
Mathematics has often been described as a school subject that privileges white, middle-class, heteronormative male learners (Foyn et al., 2018; Leyva, 2017). Despite evidence that refutes the “white male mathematics” myth and the existence of a supposed mathematics gene that is exclusively found in male learners (Hacker, 2016), girls and queer learners are often socially conditioned from a young age to believe that they are not capable of excelling in the subject (Keller & Molix, 2008; Kersey & Voigt, 2021). In this study, I aim to contribute to the international dialogues in this area by looking closely at the representation of gender in upper-primary mathematics textbooks in the Republic of Cyprus (hereafter will be referred to as Cyprus), in order to identify and challenge stereotypical images that reinforce traditional gender norms. Specifically, this study focuses on the following research questions:
- How is gender portrayed in the upper-primary mathematics textbooks of Cyprus?
- To what extent do these representations align with dominant views of gender roles as fixed and binary?
My understanding of gender is influenced by the work of Judith Butler. For Butler (2004), gender constitutes “the mechanism by which notions of masculine and feminine are produced and naturalized” (p. 42). This stresses how gender is not a personal innate trait, but rather a social construct framed by factors such as, social interactions, cultural expectations, and biopolitics (e.g. access to safe abortion clinics). In this respect, Butler (1990) introduced the term gender performativity to refer to gender as not something that one is, but something one does. In other words, gender performativity encapsulates the ways in which individuals adopt and repeatedly perform specific behaviours, mannerisms, and identities associated with their assigned gender, which are considered “normal” or “appropriate”, based on societal norms.
This study follows the lead of previous ones in different contexts aiming at uncovering how gender is represented in mathematics textbooks around the world. In general, school textbooks have been found to serve as tools through which specific dominant ideologies, normalised social expectations, political views, and religious beliefs are promoted (Mahboob, 2017). Despite common misconceptions of school mathematics being devoid of social, cultural, and political matter, worthwhile mathematics textbooks constitute no exception in being used for ideology maintenance and reproduction, especially regarding heteronormativity and socially acceptable gender behaviours (Parise, 2021).
Several studies in different contexts have analysed the performative aspects of gender representation in mathematics textbooks. From a European perspective, some examples include the work of Macintyre and Hamilton (2010) in Scotland, Osaďan et al. (2021) in Slovakia, and Tainio and Karvonen (2015) in Finland. These studies (and several others around the world that are not mentioned here due to space limitations) have concluded that stereotypical heteronormative roles are prevalent in the textbook series analysed. Even in cases in which women are not presented in stereotypical roles, references to men are far more elaborate and overemphasised. Such examples can be found in Parise (2021) and her analyses of US high school statistics textbooks, in which men are described with phrases such as “founder of modern psychology”, “one of the greatest statisticians of the twentieth century” and “great philosopher and hall of fame catcher”, while women are mentioned merely by their job title: “researcher”, “psychologist”, “actress”.
The originality of the current study lies in the fact that it focuses on mathematics textbooks from an unexplored context, that of Cyprus. In this respect, the study contributes to the growth of the body of literature that takes a critical stance against gender stereotyping in mathematics textbooks and beyond.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedCyprus has been a member of the European Union since 2004. Despite advancements in recent years, Greek-Cypriot society continues to be marked by significant levels of sexism (Tsichla & Zotos, 2016) and homophobia/transphobia (Apostolidou, 2020), with the Greek Orthodox Church still exerting a significant influence on educational matters (Zembylas et al., 2019). The Cypriot educational system is highly centralised, with all public primary and secondary schools using the same national textbooks, administered by the Ministry of Education (Xenofontos, 2019).
The mathematics textbooks for primary school can be found at https://mathd.schools.ac.cy/index.php/el/. For practical reasons, I will focus in this study on the upper-primary textbooks (grades 4, 5, and 6). In the future, this could be extended to the lower-primary textbooks. As can be seen online, the textbooks for grade 4 (age 9-10) are in five parts (five sequentially structured textbooks), while those for grade 5 (age 10-11) and grade 6 (age 11-12) are in four parts each. Overall, there are 13 individual textbooks across the upper-primary grades.
Following Parise (2021), this study will be developed in three phases. Phase 1 will be concerned with the identification of references to gender in textbooks. This will involve a random selection of two parts (textbooks) from grade 4, one from grade 5, and one from grade 6. I will read each textbook and mark all problems (including problems in the narrative text), images, sidebars, and summaries that use words attributed to sex (e.g., female, male, intersex), gender (e.g., woman, man, girl, boy, non-binary, trans), or relationships (e.g., marriage, dating, family). Phase 2 will be concerned with development of a coding scheme. This phase will begin inductively developing a coding system using the marked in-text problems from the textbooks. During this process, the aim is to discuss the coding scheme with at least two colleagues, of which one will be familiar with the Cypriot context. Phase 3 will be concerned with the application of the coding scheme to all textbooks from all three grades.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsIt is anticipated that this study will provide evidence as to the ways and the extent to which school mathematics in the context of Cyprus contributes (or not) to the reproduction of gender stereotypes. Reproduction of stereotypes is never innocent. It creates crucial consequences that ought to be addressed and not left hanging, as for example, reinforcing the binary at the expense of other gender identities, continuing to exclude minoritised gender variants from curricula, and not allowing minoritised pupils ever see themselves represented in the (mathematics) classroom. As discussed earlier, there are high levels of sexism and homophobia/transphobia among Greek-Cypriot society. School mathematics is often (yet erroneously) seen as an “innocent” or “pure” subject, unrelated to social, cultural and political issues, which does not contribute to the reproduction of social exclusions. It is anticipated that the outcomes of this study (regardless of whether gender will be found to be depicted stereotypically) can be used to inform policy making, pre-service teacher education, and the in-service professional development of teachers.
ReferencesApostolidou, Z. (2020). Homophobic and transphobic bullying within the school community in Cyprus: a thematic analysis of school professionals’, parents’ and children’s experiences. Sex Education, 20(1), 46-58.
Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. Routledge.
Butler, J. (2004). Undoing gender. Routledge.
Foyn, T., Solomon, Y., & Braathe, H. J. (2018). Clever girls’ stories: The girl they call a nerd. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 98(1), 77-93.
Hacker, A. (2016). The math myth and other STEM delusions. New Press.
Keller, J., & Molix, L. (2008). When women can’t do math: The interplay of self-construal, group identification, and stereotypic performance standards. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(2), 437-444.
Kersey, E., & Voigt, M. (2021). Finding community and overcoming barriers: experiences of queer and transgender postsecondary students in mathematics and other STEM fields. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 33(4), 733-756.
Leyva, L. A. (2017). Unpacking the male superiority myth and masculinization of mathematics at the intersections: A review of research on gender in mathematics education. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 48(4), 397-433.
Macintyre, T., & Hamilton, S. (2010). Mathematics learners and mathematics textbooks: a question of identity? Whose curriculum? Whose mathematics? The Curriculum Journal, 21(1), 3-23.
Mahboob, A. (2017). The power of language in textbooks: shaping futures, shaping identities. Asian Englishes, 19(3), 259-272.
Neto, V. F., & da Silva, M. A. (2021). Gender as a problem in maths textbooks: A practical handbook on how to be a girl/woman. Acta Scientiae, 23(8), 191-221.
Osaďan, R., Belešová, M., & Szentesiová, L. (2018). Sissies, sportsmen and moms standing over stoves: Gender aspect of readers and mathematics textbooks for primary education in Slovakia. Foro de Educación, 16(25), 243-261.
Parise, M. M. (2021). Gender, sex, and heteronormativity in high school statistics textbooks. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 33(4), 757-785.
Tainio, L., & Karvonen, U. (2015). Finnish teachers exploring gender bias in school textbooks. In S. Mills & A. S. Mustapha (Eds.), Gender representations in learning materials: International perspectives (pp. 124-149). Routledge.
Tsichla, E., & Zotos, Y. (2016). Gender portrayals revisited: searching for explicit and implicit stereotypes in Cypriot magazine advertisements. International Journal of Advertising, 35(6), 983-1007.
Xenofontos, C. (2019). Primary teachers’ perspectives on mathematics during curriculum reform: A collective case study from Cyprus. Issues in Educational Research, 29(3), 979-996.
Zembylas, M., Antoniou, M., & Loukaidis, L. (2019). Navigating between national religious/confessional ideology and interreligiosity: the case of Greek-Cypriot teachers in religious education. European Education, 51(3), 165-185.
33. Gender and Education
Paper
Walking the Line of Being a Geek or Not: Race, Gender and Re-surfacing Stereotypes
Maria Berge1, Heather Mendick2, Andreas Ottemo3, Eva Silfver1
1Umeå University, Sweden; 2Freelance Academic, UK; 3Gothenburg University, Sweden
Presenting Author: Berge, Maria
Who is a geek? In popular media the geeks are often portrayed as the school’s losers who perform well in school but have low status (Salter and Blodget, 2017). The low status of the geek/nerd/swot/boffin in schools has had the implication of making it less attractive to study hard (Francis 2009, Jackson & Nyström, 2015). This is especially true for male students who do a balancing act to not be categorised as a geek or nerd (Asp-Onsjö & Öhrn, 2015; Nyström, 2012; Peltola & Phoenix, 2022). Different negative traits are connected to the geek label, such as not caring what to wear and not being sporty, and sometimes boys perform purposely less well in school to avoid this label (Nyström 2012). At the same time as this geek figure is ‘congenitally uncool’ the geek figure has always been strongly connected to science, technology and computer science, and the position of being a genius (Willey & Subramaniam, 2017). The idea of brilliant geekiness has been so powerful that people seeking to hire computer programmers have looked for signs of it as proof of intelligence and programming ability (Kendal 1999). The geek figure, the awkward genius, primarily white and male, has thus gatekeeping functions in technology.
However, over the last decades the geek label has shifted significantly: from historically being associated with mockery and an outsider position, the geek has become increasingly dominant both in popular media as well as in economic and cultural structures (Salter and Blodget, 2017; Tocci 2009). This shift is partly displayed in how geeks are celebrated in real life, for example Bill Gates and Steve Jobs, but also how the geek figure has become a central one in popular media. The geek entrepreneur in movies such as Iron man and The Social Network answers ‘contemporary tensions within masculinity and capitalism’ (Mendick et al, 2021, p. 2). According to Tocci (2009), there are four overlapping images of geeks today: the Geek as a misfit, the Geek as a genius, the Geek as a fan and ‘Geek as chic’. The Geek as a misfit has low status and is awkward and the Geek as a genius (with the example of Bill Gates) is passionate about technology. Both these images are in line with how a geek has traditionally been conceived before. However, the Geek as a fan is described as into geeky hobbies (such as games, science-fiction, and other traditionally geeky media), but with a ‘shared sense of childlike playfulness, and potentially a purposeful resistance against broader norms of maturity’ (p. 322), which is not necessarily a low status position. The image of Geek as chic makes it not just okay to be a geek, but it is actually a high-status position, the geeks are thought to represent their own hip subculture of sorts and their own sense of style.
How big this shift or movement is around the geek figure is contested and needs to be investigated, especially how the limits and borders have changed in relation to race and gender. There is also an urgent need to address if the geek figure still operates as gatekeeper to technology education. The aim of this study is to explore this shift around the geek figure by interviewing Swedish teenagers about what they think about geeks and geekiness today.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedWe did group interviews with 32 students doing their third year in upper secondary school, all being 18-19 years old. These 32 students, 21 boys and 11 girls, were classmates in three different school programmes: the Natural Science Programme, the Technology Programme and the Social Science Programme. The students were asked about what a geek is and how it is possible to know if someone is a geek. We also asked if they saw themselves as geeks and if there are any good or bad sides of being a geek. To prompt them to speak of geekiness, we showed them four clips of people handling technology from four US films: Men in Black (1997) featuring Agent J, The Social Network (2010) a biopic of Mark Zuckerberg, Age of Ultron (2015) with Tony Stark and Bruce Banner, and The Black Panther (2018) with the Princess of Wakanda Shuri teasing her brother T’Challa/Black Panther.
In our analysis we focused on how the geek figure was positioned by the students in the interviews, how the students related to the geek figure themselves and how the movie characters in the four selected clips were perceived by the students. The first step in our analysis was, after listening to all the interviews carefully, to select instances where geekiness or geeks were described, looking for storylines of geekiness: How do the students position the geek figure? Positioning is the discursive process that people use in conversations to arrange social structures (Davies and Harré, 1990), where positionings can be deliberate, inadvertent, presumptive or taken for granted (Harré et al., 2009). Positionings are always twofold, in that a positioning of someone else also implies a positioning of oneself, so what they express about geeks gives us clues about their own relationship to geekiness. Storylines that are linked to cultural contexts beyond the actual conversation unfold as participants are engaged in positioning themselves and others (Davies and Harré, 1990; Harré and Langenhove, 1999), for example that the geek has suffered and has unhealed wounds (Mendick et al, 2021) or the idea of STEM being a meritocracy (Willey & Subramaniam, 2017). We also analysed how the movie characters Agent J, Mark Zuckerberg, Tony Stark and Bruce Banner, and Shuri and T’Challa were positioned by the students, with a special focus on race and gender.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsOur results illustrate how upper secondary Swedish students position geeks as belonging to one of two storylines: The storyline of the modern geek where it is cool to be a geek and the position is non-gendered and non-racialised, and The storyline of the stereotypical geek where the geek is white, male, socially awkward, and primally interested in technology. Since the students use the word ‘stereotypical’ when they talk about the low-status geek it is tempting to believe that this position is only a remnant of timed passed, but this storyline is still active in their narratives. For example, they position people at their own school as stereotypical geeks. These two storylines were interlinked. In the storyline of the modern geek the geek position is open for everyone, but this idea was simply not coherent with how many students did not let the character Shuri pass as a geek. The arguments for not positioning her as a geek (apart from being a woman and black), were that Shuri was too good-looking, too well-dressed and too social. Among all the characters we presented to participants, the character of Shuri was the one the students perceived as least authentic. This is interesting, because they continued saying that ‘[today] anyone can become a geek’ and that gender, race, class, and sexuality have no significance. In our reading, this parallel view of what a geek is keeps the myth of a geek meritocracy (Willey & Subramaniam, 2017) intact, at the same time as they clearly were more hesitant to position black women as geeks. Therefore, our data indicates that hopes that the pluralized modern geek position, i.e. ‘the geek is chic’ (Tocci, 2009) will provide a gateway into STEM for black female students are not well-founded.
ReferencesAsp-Onsjö, L., & Öhrn, E. (2015). To pass the test: the timing of boys’ parallel positioning. Education Inquiry, 6(2), 25466.
Davies, B., & Harré, R. (1990). Positioning: The discursive production of selves. Journal for the theory of social behaviour, 20(1), 43-63.
Francis, B. (2009). The role of The Boffin as abject Other in gendered performances of school achievement. The Sociological Review, 57(4), 645-669.
Harré, R., & Van Langenhove, L. (1999). Positioning theory. The discursive turn in social psychology, 129-136.
Harré, R., F. M. Moghaddam, T. P. Cairnie, D. Rothbart, and S. R. Sabat. 2009. “Recent Advances in Positioning Theory.” Theory and Psychology 19 (1): 5–31.
Jackson, C., & Nyström, A. S. (2015). ‘Smart students get perfect scores in tests without studying much’: why is an effortless achiever identity attractive, and for whom is it possible?. Research Papers in Education, 30(4), 393-410.
Kendall, L. (2011). " White and Nerdy": Computers, Race, and the Nerd Stereotype. Journal of Popular Culture, 44(3), 505-524.
Nyström, A. S. (2012). Att synas och lära utan att synas lära: en studie om underprestation och privilegierade unga mäns identitetsförhandlingar i gymnasieskolan (Doctoral dissertation, Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis).
Mendick, H., & Francis, B. (2012). Boffin and geek identities: abject or privileged?. Gender and Education, 24(1), 15-24.
Mendick, H., Ottemo, A., Berge, M., & Silfver, E. (2021). Geek entrepreneurs: the social network, Iron Man and the reconfiguration of hegemonic masculinity. Journal of Gender Studies, 1-13.
Peltola, M., & Phoenix, A. (2022). Nuancing young masculinities: Helsinki Boys’ Intersectional Relationships in New Times (p. 232). Helsinki University Press.
Salter, A., & Blodgett, B. (2017). Toxic geek masculinity in media: Sexism, trolling, and identity policing. Springer.
Tocci, J. (2009). Geek cultures: Media and identity in the digital age (Doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania).
Willey, A., & Subramaniam, B. (2017). Inside the social world of asocials: White nerd masculinity, science, and the politics of reverent disdain. Feminist Studies, 43(1), 13-41.
33. Gender and Education
Paper
How the Appearance of Pedagogical Agents Influences the Self-Concept of Science in Physics
Tom Jungbluth1,2, Martina Graichen1, Silke Mikelskis-Seifert1, Josef Künsting2
1Freiburg University of Education, Institute of Chemistry, Physics and Technology Education, Department of Physics Education, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany; 2Freiburg University of Education, Institute of Psychology, Department of Teaching and Learning, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
Presenting Author: Jungbluth, Tom
Gender stereotypes prevalent in society are considered an important explanation for gender differences and their influence on learners' self-concept, interests, and emotions (Marsh et al., 2005). Mathematics and science subjects are often associated with a masculine stereotype, while language subjects are typically perceived as having feminine connotations (Kessels et al., 2006). Girls are particularly sensitive to stereotypical environments that maintain science as a male domain (Mason et al., 1991). One way to counteract the development of stereotypes can be learning environments that are appropriate for students' needs (Armando et al., 2022). If they do not present science in stimulating, relevant, and equitable ways, only students who fit the stereotype of science will continue to enroll in it (Gardner et al., 1989; Mason & Kahle, 1989). Due to stereotypical perceptions in learning environments, the use of a well-deliberated design of pedagogical agents (PA) as a digital learning guide that supports students in their learning process aims to counteract negative effects of stereotypes (e.g., on science self-concept). The assumption is that a gender-neutral looking PA with certain pop cultural features found in students' worlds that appealed to both genders would reduce the perceived masculinity of physics as a subject and enhance the students' science self-concept. According to Fitzgerald (2018, 2019) integrating elements of popular culture, such as characteristics of superheroes, into the development of pedagogical agents can positively support student learning. As a consequence, the aim of this research project was to investigate at first how students perceive ideal and given PAs as learning guides of a digital learning environment and second to determine the influence of gender-neutral looking PAs, developed based on the results of the first study, on students' science self-concept and interest in a web-based comic (webcomic). The first study examined secondary students' perceptions (N = 128) of an ideal PA for a web-based multimedia environment for science education. To investigate possible influencing factors of learners' popular culture in selecting characteristics of their ideal PA, characteristics of well-known superheroes (human = Batgirl/Batman; human-like = Supergirl/Superman; robot = Cyklob; alien = She-Hulk/Hulk) were included in the form of categories. In addition, to examine possible effects of different agent features, we developed nine comic-based pedagogical agents that differed in gender (female, male, gender-neutral), age (young, old), fiction (real, fiction) and human-likeness (human, human-like, non-human). Its purpose was to investigate the popularity, acceptance and perceived emotions related to the presented educational offer. To identify possible predictors of the selection of PAs, in addition to gender and age, and digital media use, students' emotions (Bradley & Lang, 1994) were assessed. From the results, two pedagogical agents, “Kogni“, a gender-neutral looking superhero, and “MetaRob“, a non-human robot, were selected for embedding in a webcomic. We assumed that a gender-neutral looking PA as a superhero and a non-human agent (robot) would invalidate the masculinely charged subject of physics and empower both male and female students in their science self-concept. To investigate these assumptions, 73 students participated in Study 2 in which they were guided in a webcomic about floating and sinking through the two selected PAs. A significant increase of science self-concept from pre- to posttest was found with a medium effect regardless of the gender of the students. The results have shown that gender-neutral looking PAs can play an important role in enhancing students' self-concept in digital science education. Independent of the usual classroom and regular instruction, the design of digital media offers the possibility of creating an inclusive learning environment that can reduce these stereotypes and can make students feel empowered in their science self-concept.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe first study examined secondary students' perceptions about an ideal pedagogical agent. Overall, 128 students (gender: female = 41.4%; age: M (SD) = 12.02 (0.71)) from eight classes at four schools (85,2 % secondary school, 13,3% community school) participated. In a first step, they selected characteristics of an ideal PA by choosing from four categories: gender (female, male, non-binary, indifferent), age (child, teenager, young adult, adult, old adult), fiction (real, fiction) and human-likeness (human, human-like, non-human). The human-likeness category subdivided as follows: human, human-like superhero, robot, animal, alien, mythical creature, and others. To identify possible predictors of the students' choice of specific characteristics of an ideal PA, in addition to gender, age, and digital media use, students' emotions (valence, arousal, dominance) toward the ideal PA were assessed using the Self-Assessment Manikin scales (SAM; Bradley & Lang, 1994). In a second step, students rated nine comic-based PAs designed with the above characteristics from first rank (most popular) to ninth rank (least popular) in terms of popularity. Next, possible preferences in selecting a PA were explored by having students rate their perceived acceptability as well as their emotions toward the first, second and ninth ranked PA, also using the SAM scales.
In the second study, a PA that has positive encounters with both genders was provided. Two new PAs, designed by the outcome from Study 1, were incorporated into a web-based comic (webcomic) with simulations to measure their effect on students' science self-concept and interest in science comics. Based on the results of Study 1 two PA had been designed: Kogni, a gender neutral looking superhero and MetaRob, a robot. To investigate the effect of the two PAs on science self-concept and interest, 73 secondary students (gender: female = 38.4%, divers = 5.5 %; age: M (SD) = 11.45 (0.83)) participated in a pre/post design study. Participants were given a questionnaire of scientific self-concept developed by Authors (2010). The questionnaire consists of nine items (Cronbach's alpha = 0.90; e.g.,"I am gifted in science") with a 4-point scale. A questionnaire by Authors (2022) was adapted to measure students' interest in science comic. The questionnaire consists of four items (Cronbach's alpha = 0.83; e.g., "I like reading comics.") with a 4-point scale. Furthermore, in the posttest, assessments on the PAs design were developed with a total of three items on well-being, likability, and role as a learning guide.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsIt was hypothesized that learners' current popular culture would have an impact on learners' conception of an ideal PA, which will be reflected in an increased selection of the superhero, robot, and alien categories. Descriptive analysis of the results showed that the male participants chose the alien and the robot mainly in the first rank, followed by the gender-neutral looking superhero, while for the girls the superhero was ranked the most first. A chi-square test showed a significant result for both ranks, first rank χ²(2) = 7.27, p = .013, V = 0.24 (girls 50% human, boys 20% human), ninth rank χ²(2) = 15.24, p < .001, V = 0.35 (girls 36.5% human, boys 68.9% human). In the space available for this proposal, only a portion of the results could be presented.
For the second study no significant effect was found for interest in science comics between pretest and posttest (t(72) = 0.15, p = .881). Based on the use of gender-neutral PAs with current popular culture learning characteristics that include both genders, we hypothesize that there should be no differences in science self-concept between students' gender. However, a significant increase (t(72) = 3.46, p = .001) of science self-concept from pre- to posttest was found with a moderate effect size (d = 0.404). To draw conclusions about the relationship between the effect of PAs and self-concept, correlations were calculated with the following results: All items on the PAs correlate positively with self-concept for all learners (Pearson's Correlation, r (0.347- 0.554), p < .001). These findings apply to both PAs and show that designing PAs gender-neutral can have a positive impact on students' science self-concept of both genders and provide an opportunity to create an inclusive learning environment in which students overcome these stereotypes and feel empowered.
ReferencesArmando, M., Ochs, M., & Régner, I. (2022). The Impact of Pedagogical Agents' Gender on Academic Learning: A Systematic Review. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, 5.
Authors. (2010). [Title omitted for blind review].
Authors. (2022). [Title omitted for blind review].
Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (1994). Measuring emotion: the Self-Assessment Manikin and the Semantic Differential. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25(1), 49–59.
Dark, M. L. (2005). Using Science Fiction Movies in Introductory Physics. The Physics Teacher, 43(7), 463–465.
Fitzgerald, B. W. (2018). Using superheroes such as Hawkeye, Wonder Woman and the Invisible Woman in the physics classroom. Physics Education, 53(3), 035032.
Fitzgerald, B. W. (2019). Exploring the electromagnetic spectrum with superheroes. Physics Education, 54(1), 015019.
Gardner, A. L., Mason, C. L., & Matyas, M. L. (1989). Equity, excellence, and "just plain good teaching." The American Biology Teacher, 57, 72-78.
Kessels, U., Rau, M. & Hannover, B. (2006). What goes well with physics? Measuring and altering the image of science. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74 (4), 761–780.
Marsh, H. W., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Köller, O., & Baumert, J. (2005). Academic self-concept, interest, grades, and standardized test scores: Reciprocal effects models of causal ordering. Child Development, 76 (2), 397–416.
Mason, C. L., & Kahle, J. B. (1989). Student attitudes toward science and science-related careers: A program designed to promote a stimulating gender-free learning environment. Journal for Research in Science Teaching, 26, 25-39.
Mason, C. L., Kahle, J. B., & Gardner, A. L. (1991). Draw‐a‐scientist test: Future implications. School science and mathematics, 91(5), 193-198.
Um, E., Plass, J. L., Hayward, E. O., & Homer, B. D. (2012). Emotional design in multimedia learning. Journal of educational psychology, 104(2), 485.
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