23. Policy Studies and Politics of Education
Paper
Formation of Applicants’ Subject Positions After Educational Reforms
Alina Inkinen1, Anna-Maija Niemi2
1University of Helsinki, Finland; 2University of Turku
Presenting Author: Inkinen, Alina;
Niemi, Anna-Maija
In Finland, it is seen that educational politics is solving societal problems related to inequalities concerning genders or socio-economical background by providing equal opportunities for educational paths (Tolonen & Aapola-Kari 2021). The aim of a common comprehensive education in Nordic welfare states has been to ensure that equal opportunities for educational transitions remain throughout the age group (Isopahkala-Bouret et al., 2018). Upper secondary education in Finland is divided to general upper secondary education and vocational education and training (VET). General upper secondary education has traditionally been the predominant route to higher education (HE). However, it is possible to transit to HE also from VET. The educational transition from upper secondary education to HE on is highly competitive, one of the most competitives among the OECD countries, and there are fewer study places than tho applicants who have applied for admission to HE (Kosunen et al 2020). According to OECD, the educational transition from upper secondary education to HE in Finland is slower than the OECD average: only a third of new university students have completed their upper secondary education at the same year they started their studying. In the universities of applied sciences, the corresponding number is less than a fifth (OECD 2019).
During the last two decades, OECD has increased its influence by exercising its power throughout international comparisons and benchmarking which has influence in national education policies (e.g. Volmari 2022; Grek, 2009; Mundy et al., 2016). Therefore, a leaner educational transition has been in the interest of recent education politics in Finland. Finland has conducted three educational reforms in order to promote educational transitions to HE and working life and increase the amount of population taking part in higher education. The reforms are the Higher Education admission reform, reform of vocational education and training (VET reform) and the reform of general upper secondary education (MINEDU 2018a; 2019; 2018b). These reforms have together re-shaped the politics of transition and affected educational transition from upper secondary education to HE. As a result of HE admission reform from 2020, universities started increasingly utilising the final certificate from general upper secondary education (matriculation examination) instead of entrance examinations, while universities of applied sciences started utilising the final certificate both from VET and the general upper secondary education (Government proposal 41/2018). Entrance examinations to universities are still available for students whose academic grades are not the best or VET degree
International and national research literature have repeatedly demonstrated that variation in applicants’ social background and gender are intertwined in the educational transition from upper secondary education to HE and may be involved in producing inequality (Nori 2011; Reay, Davies, David & Ball 2001; Tarabini & Curran, 2015). Selection to HE is not equal in Finland and higher education students can be seen as a selective group (Nori et al., 2021). What is not yet clear is the impact of these reforms on higher education applicants’ positions in Finland. Applicants have different premises when moving on from upper secondary education to HE is depending on their academic success and desired place to study and opens up different prospects of operation to these applicants. Our research question is what kinds of subject positions are available to the HE applicants in relation to the reformed politics of transitions when moving from upper secondary education to HE in Finland after the implementations of three educational reforms? Within this study, subject positioning is defined as a process where students’ understanding of their possibilities are shaped in relation to the social and discursive practices of education (e.g., Davies & Harré 1990, Davies 1995, Foucault 1982, Niemi & Mietola 2017).
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe data consists of 22 semi-structured thematic interviews and data production took place in January and February of 2021. Interviewees were either first-year students or young adults who did not secure a study position in HE. All the interviewees have graduated from general upper secondary education. They lived in different parts of Finland and had applied for a place in various fields of HE. Their primary goal in this data was to secure a position in universities instead of universities of applied sciences.
At the time, Finland was still closed due to the pandemic of Covid-19. The individual interviews were held remotely via zoom and each interview was from 40 minutes to 1.5 hours. The audio was recorded with a separate recorder and transcribed into text files that were anonymised for the analysis. The analytical process is still ongoing.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe premise is that applicants have to use carefully selected tactics in their upper secondary studies in order to secure success in selection to HE. These tactics vary depending on the position that they take or are able to take in relation to the politics of transition.
ReferencesDavies, B. (1995). Poststructuralist Theory and Classroom Practice. Deakin University.
Grek, S. (2009). Governing by numbers: The PISA effect. Journal of Education Policy, 24(1), 23–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680930802412669
Davies, B., & Harré, R. (1990). Positioning: The Discursive Production of Selves. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 20(1), 43-63. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5914.1990.tb00174.x
Isopahkala-Bouret, U., Börjesson, M., Beach, D., Haltia, N., Jónasson, J. T., Jauhiainen, A., Jauhiainen, A., Kosunen, S., Nori, H., & Vabø, A. (2018). Access and stratification in Nordic higher education. A review of cross-cutting research themes and issues. Education Inquiry, 9(1). https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20004508.2018.1429769
MINEDU, (2019). FAQs about the higher education institution’s student admission reform. Online: https://minedu.fi/usein-kysyttya-korkeakouluvalinnat [cited 11.8.2020]
MINEDU, (2018a). Reform of vocational upper secondary education: Online: https://minedu.fi/usein-kysyttya-amisreformi [cited 14.8.2020]
MINEDU, (2018b). Reform of general upper secondary education: Online: https://minedu.fi/en/reform-of-general-upper-secondary-education [cited 1.9.2020]
Mundy, K., Green, A., Lingard, B., & Verger, A. (2016). Handbook of global education policy. Wiley
Niemi, A-M., & Mietola, R. 2017. Between hopes and possibilities: (Special) educational paths, agency and subjectivities. Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research, 19(3),218-229.
Nori, H., Juusola, H., Kohtamaki, V., Lyytinen, A., & Kivistö, J. (2021). Korkeakoulutuksen saavutettavuus ja tasa-arvo Suomessa ja verrokkimaissa. GATE-hankkeen loppuraportti (Valtioneuvoston selvitys- ja tutkimustoiminnan julkaisusarja 2021:12)
OECD. (2019). Investing in Youth. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/publications/investing-in-youth-finland-1251a123-en.htm
Kosunen, S., Haltia, N. and Jokila, S. (2015). Valmennuskurssit ja mahdollisuuksien tasa-arvo yliopistokoulutukseen hakeutumisessa [Prepatory courses and equity in university admission], The Finnish Journal of Education 46(4): 334–348
Reay, D., Davies, J., David, M., & Ball, S. (2001). Choices of Degree or Degrees of Choice? Class, ‘Race’ and the Higher Education Choice Process. Sociology, 35, 855-874. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0038038501008550
Tarabini, A., & Curran, M. (2015). The effect of social class on educational decisions: an analysis of young people's educational opportunities, believes and desires. Revista De Investigacion En Educacion, 13(1), 7-26
Tolonen , T & Aapola-Kari , S (2021). ' Nuorten toisen asteen koulutusvalinnat : pääomat, strategiat ja koulutuksellisen arvon muotoutuminen ' , Sosiologia , Vuosikerta. 58 , Nro 2 , Sivut 103-118 .
Volmari, S. (2022). Constellation of trajectories and fast policy worlds: A spatiotemporal reading of experts’ positions and social encounters in Finland’s and Norway’s recent curriculum reforms, Nordic Journal of Studies in Educational Policy, 8:3, 184-195,
23. Policy Studies and Politics of Education
Paper
Exploring VET Teacher Agency: An Investigation of Policy Work and Master Discourses in England and Scotland
Stephanie Thomson
University of Aberdeen, United Kingdom
Presenting Author: Thomson, Stephanie
Teachers in Vocational Education and Training (VET) across Europe are working in challenging conditions. Reforms in relation to performance management are challenging established ideas of teacher professionalism in a range of contexts (Hautz, 2020). In the UK, Vocational Education and Training (VET) is also ‘piecemeal and fragmented’ and lacks the clear ‘narrative’ that can be found in other European systems (Winch and Addis, 2022). This long-standing problem has been argued to impact, among other things, recruitment into VET teaching (see Hanley and Orr, 2019) and overall economic competitiveness (Winch and Addis, 2022). There have been impacts of VET teachers too with some work suggesting that the combination of managerial use of targets and curricula designed without VET teacher input has led to a complete loss of agency for UK VET teachers (Lloyd and Payne, 2012). Orr (2019) suggests this is an issue in other European systems too though perhaps to a lesser extent.
In this paper, I explore the various ways that current policies are being enacted in practice in Further Education Institutions (FEIs) in the UK. Specifically, I am interested in the degree of agency that VET teachers have in their professional lives. I focus on FEIs specifically as this is where the majority of VET takes place in the UK and these are the types of institutions most subject to the kinds of managerial oversight described above. In England and Scotland, the two countries I focus on here, FEIs cater to a combined total of approximately 2 million students and offer a wide range of academic and vocational courses and apprenticeship provision (AOC, 2022; Colleges Scotland, 2022). Despite this, work focussing on the interpretation and negotiation of policy within FEIs - or what Ball et al (2012) call ‘policy work’- is relatively rare.
The theoretical framework informing this work comes from Ball et al (2012) who explored ‘policy enactment’ in secondary schools. This is slightly different to a focus on ‘implementation’ which, I suggest, only offers a limited insight into the work involved in ‘doing policy’. In contrast to a ‘normative’ approach (Ozga, 2000) which Cairney and Oliver (2020) suggest doesn’t account for decision-making taking place at sub-national levels, I focus here on practitioners’ accounts of the work they do to negotiate and work with policy priorities in their own settings.
Using Ball et al’s (2012) framework, I explored accounts of ‘policy work’ in two VET settings - one in Scotland and one in England. Policy work can be thought of as the range of activities professionals, in this case VET teachers, undertake in relation to policy (Ball et al, 2012). Some of these activities may indicate a more or less critical stance in relation to any particular policy and a more or less agentic position.
In doing this, I am seeking to answer two key questions: what agency (if any) do UK VET teachers have? And what constrains their agency?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedI conducted semi-structured focus groups and interviews with a total of 6 practitioners to explore accounts of ‘policy work’ in two VET settings - one in Scotland and one in England. The focus on policy work allowed participants to talk through their decision making, explore alternatives and explain the conditions under which their decisions were made.
In each case, I centred the discussions around a specific policy issue. In England, my focus was entry requirements for RQF Level 3 (EQF Level 4) options - building on some earlier work (Lupton et al, 2021) where we examined options for those without the expected grades in English and Maths by age 16. In Scotland, I examined challenges around the provision of the Curriculum for Excellence’s (CFE) ‘senior phase’ in FEIs. During the senior phase, young people in Scotland can spend part of their time in school and part in an FEI.
In both these policy contexts, VET teachers are responsible for enacting policies that have impacts on admissions, organisation and delivery of provision and assessment. Due to the fast moving policy context in both Scottish and English VET, all the participants were able to draw on their previous working practices and contrast these with their current circumstances. This allowed for an even more detailed consideration of their current policy contexts and the ways in which these created or constrained agency.
I used Directed Qualitative Content Analysis (Hsieh and Shannon, 2005) to analyse the transcripts from these focus groups and interviews. The initial codes were formed by considering the types of policy work in Ball et al’s (2012) model of policy enactments for schools and looking for evidence of agency in these accounts of VET practitioners.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsI found evidence in the interview and focus group data that VET teachers did have some degree of agency in their work but that this was often constrained. Hautz (2020) suggests that governmentality and its implicit power mechanisms can explain constraints on VET teacher agency. However, in the accounts here, the concept of ‘master discourses’ from Ball et al (2012) proved much more useful at explaining the constraints articulated by the participants in their accounts of policy work. The ‘master discourses’ articulated by the participants focussed on the low reputation of VET routes and institutions - a common problem for VET everywhere (Orr, 2019). The participants recognised the persuasiveness and durability of these discourses for others whilst not subscribing to them themselves.
These overarching understandings of the place of VET in the wider education landscape were key in shaping the policy enactments of practitioners and often formed the backbone of their narratives of policy work. Their accounts included discussions of entrepreneurial and creative actions but also detailed how participants had to carve out the spaces to act in this way. They did this through detailed understanding of the managerial mechanisms they were subject to and through their wider knowledge of the education policy landscape. The identification of master discourses in the data helped to contextualise the narratives of practitioners and avoid an overly-simplistic reading of their accounts of their own policy work.The participants’ accounts ultimately show the possibility of professionals to exercise some agency even when working in systems, such as English and Scottish VET, with strict accountability/quality frameworks and lots of policy change - a growing characteristic of VET systems elsewhere in Europe.
ReferencesAllain-Dupré, D. (2018), "Assigning responsibilities across levels of government: Trends, challenges and guidelines for policy-makers", OECD Working Papers on Fiscal Federalism, No. 24, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/f0944eae-en.
AOC (2022), “College Key Facts 2022/23”, Association of Colleges, London, Available here: https://d4hfzltwt4wv7.cloudfront.net/uploads/files/AoC-College-Key-Facts-2022-Web.pdf
Ball, S. J., Maguire, M. & Braun, A. (2012) How schools do policy - policy enactments in secondary school [EBook]. London: Routledge
Cairney, P. and Oliver, K. (2020) ‘How Should Academics Engage in Policymaking to Achieve Impact?’, Political Studies Review, 18(2), pp. 228–244. doi: 10.1177/1478929918807714.
Colleges Scotland (2022), “Key Facts 2022”, Colleges Scotland, Stirling, Available here: https://collegesscotland.ac.uk/key-college-facts/keyfacts2022
Hanley, P., & Orr, K. (2019). The recruitment of VET teachers and the failure of policy in England’s further education sector. Journal of Education and Work, 32(2), 103-114. https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2019.1617842
Hautz, H. (2022) The ‘conduct of conduct’ of VET teachers: governmentality and teacher professionalism, Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 74:2, 210-227, DOI: 10.1080/13636820.2020.1754278
Hsieh, H.-F. and Shannon, S. E. (2005). ‘Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis’, Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), pp. 1277–1288. doi: 10.1177/1049732305276687.
Lupton, R., Thomson, S., Velthuis, S., Unwin, L. (2021). Moving on from initial GCSE ‘failure': Post-16 transitions for ‘lower attainers’ and why the English education system must do better. London: Nuffield Foundation. Available here: https://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/project/students-who-do-not-achieve-a-grade-c-or-above-in-english-and-maths
Lloyd, C., & Payne, J. (2012). Delivering better forms of work organization: Comparing vocational teachers in England, Wales and Norway. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 33(1), 29–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X11402101
Orr, K. (2019) ‘VET Teachers and Trainers’, in The Wiley Handbook of Vocational Education and Training. [Online]. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 329–348.
Ozga, J. (2000) Policy Research in Educational Settings: contested terrain, Buckingham, Open University Press.
Winch, C. & Addis, M. (2022). Autonomy and expertise in the English workplace, Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 74:1, 146-165, DOI: 10.1080/13636820.2020.1869808
23. Policy Studies and Politics of Education
Paper
From Hype to Weariness: National Experts Reflect on the Role of the European Union in Finnish VET Policy from 1995-2020
Antti Seitamaa
University of Helsinki, Finland
Presenting Author: Seitamaa, Antti
Since its inception, Finnish vocational education and training (VET) has responded to dramatic changes in its national and trans-national operational environment (Stenström & Virolainen, 2018). After Finland joined the European Union in 1995, Finnish VET has continued to undergo dramatic changes due to globalization, digitalization, and increased migration (see Avis, 2018). European integration has resulted in Member States’ national policies increasingly involving a trans-national dimension, making trans-national contrasting and comparison an integral part of understanding any national system (Nóvoa & Yariv-Mashal, 2003; Simola et al., 2017; Steiner-Khamsi, 2010). Both Finland and the EU have sought to harness VET in response to many of the political, economic, and social changes and associated crises that they have faced in recent years, including the 2009 eurozone crisis and the resulting “lost decade” of economic stagnation in Finland, and the integration of migrants into their new host societies in the wake of the 2015 refugee crisis (see Seitamaa & Hakoköngäs, 2022). Finland and other EU Member States have also pushed to improve national as well as European competitiveness in a rapidly changing world economy by re- and upskilling youth and adult learners (Niemi & Jahnukainen, 2020).
Although each Member State remains firmly in control of its own national education policy, the European Union has nevertheless developed a distinct VET policy agenda, which it seeks to promote to Member States and neighboring countries in different ways (Bartlett & Pagliarello, 2016; Cort, 2011; Powell et al., 2012). Based on critical discourse analysis of expert interviews with 32 leading Finnish VET policy actors, supplemented by key Finnish and EU policy documents, I argue that the EU has played an important role in narrowing the purpose of Finnish VET by emphasizing individualization, working life relevance and employability over VET’s broader non-technical educational and egalitarian dimensions (Nylund & Virolainen, 2018; Isopahkala-Bouret et al., 2014; Wheelahan, 2015; Wodak, 2001). Furthermore, I argue that the relationship between European Union and Finnish VET policy is complex and multidirectional, with national experts from like-minded Member States collaborating closely to push EU VET policy development in their preferred directions, while simultaneously making strategic use of the EU’s policy recommendations to help shape national policy agendas (Steiner-Khamsi, 2010).
Expert interviews are particularly useful when trying to understand the complex relations between policymakers, stakeholders, and institutions (Ozga, 2020). To adequately explain something as multifaceted and complex as national and trans-national agenda-setting and policymaking in VET, a flexible yet systematic approach to theory is necessary. This study employs a dynamics approach, viewing Finnish and EU VET policy as discursive, historical, and contingent (Kauko, 2013; Simola et al., 2017). It critically examines experts’ reflections on why certain actions related to VET policy have unfolded and how they are being constrained or enabled through institutional rearrangements (Simola et al., 2017). The research questions are as follows:
- How do leading national experts reflect on the role of the European Union in the development of Finnish VET policy between 1995-2020?
- How has the EU’s role in Finnish VET policy and vice versa changed between 1995-2020?
- How do Finnish VET experts see the future of European VET?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe material consists of in-depth interviews with leading policy experts and stakeholders (N = 32) in Finnish VET as well as supplementary analysis of key policy documents from Finland and the EU. Participants were identified through cross-referencing and selected based on their deep personal and professional knowledge of Finnish and its interaction with EU VET policy. The participants represented four groups: 1) key political influencers (n=8), 2) senior government officials (n=11), 3) leaders/representatives of vocational education providers (n=10), and 4) senior researchers (n=3). Experts come from organizations with different historical and political orientations and conflicting interests, which makes their insights and perspectives particularly interesting for critical discourse analysis. Experts have extensive experience in dealing with the European dimension of VET policymaking. Although most of the interview subjects would likely refrain from describing themselves as members of “the elite”, their power and influence in VET policymaking connects this study with the research tradition of elite interviews (Harvey, 2011).
Most prior research in Finnish VET tends to focus on the micro-level, often utilizing ethnographic approaches for studying students, teachers and their pedagogic interactions in specific vocational fields (e.g. Niemi & Jahnukainen, 2020). In contrast, the participants in this study work with the macro- and meso-levels of VET where political, institutional and administrative decisions about legislation, funding and steering take place (Ozga, 2020). Wodak’s (2001) discourse historical approach to critical discourse analysis will be utilized on the expert interview data in this study, which is currently undergoing preliminary analysis. First, experts’ reflections on central actors and institutions in the national and European Union VET policy fields will be analyzed, followed by an analysis of their reflections about critical events in the relationship between EU and Finnish VET policy. Key policy documents produced by central actors and institutions, corresponding to critical events, such as the Copenhagen Process, will then be critically examined to identify key discursive formations and narratives (see Cort, 2011). Careful analysis of policy documents and expert interviews will help make sense of how VET policy has transformed in Finland and the European Union between 1995-2020. Experts’ discursive formations are expected to reveal tension-laden practices and competing agendas in Finnish and EU VET policy. Analysis will concretize and situate the ideologically abstract into the politically concrete, highlighting the ways in which reforms reproduce and reconfigure national dynamics and give rise to newer transnational ones.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThis study fills a gap in research by showing how leading Finnish VET experts reflect on the relationship between Finnish and European Union VET policy. Critically examining Finnish VET policymaking in the context of European integration also has the potential to generate knowledge that could be beneficial to other EU Member States. The article contributes to long-standing discussions about the socio-historical formation and development of Finnish VET as well as discussions regarding its current agenda and future directions, particularly its trans-national dimension (Isopahkala-Bouret et al., 2014; Nylund & Virolainen, 2019; Wheelahan 2015). It is also expected to contribute to comparative educational research in Europe, hopefully informing future scholarly debate on how transnational policy gets taken up and applied in national contexts and vice versa (Nóvoa & Yariv-Mashal, 2003; Simola et al., 2017; Steiner-Khamsi, 2010).
This study will demonstrate that European Union VET policy has been one of the most important external stimuli guiding national policy development in Finland over the last three decades. Furthermore, it will show how Finnish national policy development has reciprocally contributed to EU VET policy and the significance of this symbiotic multidirectional relationship in policymaking. Many of the main elements in the 2018 Finnish VET reform, for example, were informed and inspired by EU policy recommendations, which themselves had been co-developed by Finnish experts working in the EU policy field. I hope to demonstrate that the handprint of the EU’s VET policy agenda is most visible in the 2018 Finnish VET reform, which created a new organizational and legislative basis for a working life based and individualized VET. The transformation of Finnish VET from a school-centered system into its current form was heavily inspired by EU VET policy, which has held up the Finnish reform as an example to other Member States.
ReferencesAvis, J. (2018). Socio-technical imaginary of the fourth industrial revolution and its implications for vocational education and training. Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 70(3): 337-363.
Bartlett, W. & Pagliarello. M. (2016). Agenda-setting for VET policy in the Western Balkans: employability versus social inclusion. European Journal of Education, 51(3): 305-319.
Cort, P. (2011). Taking the Copenhagen process apart: critical readings of European vocational education and training policy. PhD dissertation. Aarhus University.
Harvey, W. S. (2011). Strategies for conducting elite interviews. Qualitative Research 11(4): 431–441.
Isopahkala-Bouret, U., Lappalainen, S., & Lahelma, E. (2014). Educating worker-citizens. Journal of Education and Work, 27(1): 92-109.
Kauko, J. (2013). Dynamics in higher education politics: a theoretical model. Higher Education, 65(2): 193-206.
Niemi A.-M. & Jahnukainen, M. (2020) Educating self-governing learners and employees: studying, learning and pedagogical practices in the context of vocational education and its reform. Journal of Youth Studies, 23(9): 1143-1160, DOI: 10.1080/13676261.2019.1656329
Nóvoa, A. & Yariv-Mashal, T. (2003). Comparative research in education. Comparative Education 39(4): 423-438.
Nylund, M. & Virolainen, M. (2019). Balancing 'flexibility' and 'employability': The changing role of general studies in the Finnish and Swedish VET curricula of the 1990s and 2010s. European Educational Research Journal, 18 (3): 314-334.
Ozga, J. (2020). Elites and expertise. In G. Fan & T. Popkewitz (Eds.). Handbook of education policy studies (pp. 53-69). Springer.
Powell, J. W., Bernhard, N. & Graf, L. (2012) The emergent European model in skill formation. Sociology of Education, 20: 1–19.
Seitamaa, A. & Hakoköngäs, E. (2022). Finnish vocational education and training experts’ reflections on multiculturalism in the aftermath of a major reform. Journal of Vocational Education & Training DOI: 10.1080/13636820.2022.2066559
Simola, H., J. Kauko, J. Varjo, M. Kalalahti, & F. Sahlström. (2017). Dynamics in education politics. Routledge.
Stenström, M.-L. & Virolainen, M. (2018). The modern evolution of vocational education and training in Finland (1945–2015). In S. Michelsen & M.-L. Stenström Vocational Education in the Nordic Countries: The Historical Evolution. Routledge.
Steiner-Khamsi, G. (2010). The politics and economics of comparison. Comparative Education Review, 54(3): 323-342.
Wheelahan, L. (2015). Not just skills: what a focus on knowledge means for vocational education. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 47(6): 750-762.
Wodak, R. (2001). What CDA Is about—A Summary of Its History, Important Concepts and Its Developments. In W. R., & M. Meyer (Eds.), Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis (pp. 1-13). London: Sage Publications.
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