14. Communities, Families and Schooling in Educational Research
Paper
Intimate Partner Violence Against Women and Children’s Early Education Attendance
Huilin Li1, Arnab Dey1, Abhishek Singh2, Anita Raj1
1University of California, San Diego, United States of America; 2International Institute for Population Sciences, India
Presenting Author: Li, Huilin
Intimate partner violence (IPV) remains a major concern for women in India, with more than one in four married women reporting physical and/or sexual violence from their husbands1. Higher levels of IPV are more prevalent in rural, less educated, poorer, and marginalized populations and geographies with lower health and education access1-4. Households affected by IPV, which are more likely to be lower-resourced households,1-3 may be less likely is have their children enter early childhood education. However, even beyond resources, IPV-affected households may be less invested in supporting children’s education, or mothers in the household may be less able to manage early and even timely enrollment of young children in school. These types of maternal vulnerabilities have negative impacts on children aged 0-6 years, causing poor health outcomes and developmental delays5-7, including delayed language and delayed social-emotional development. However, research also documents the value of early childhood education and intervention to help mitigate the negative effects of IPV exposures on children. Early childhood education is not widespread in India, but the recent National Education Policy update (2020) places importance on it and focuses on developing children's intellectual and socio-emotional abilities 8-9. However, research on early childhood education in India and the impact of IPV on children's enrollment is lacking. The study uses data from India to examine if children aged 3 to 6 years in households affected by intimate partner violence (IPV) are less likely to be enrolled in school. The study considers two indicators of IPV: 1) married women's direct experiences of physical IPV and 2) married women's witnessing of physical IPV against their mothers. The study also considers the interaction of these two indicators to consider multi-generational IPV.
Results from this study show that: 1) Before adjusting for women-level covariates in our logistic regressions, women’s experience of physical IPV(OR range: 0.89-0.90) in the household was found significantly associated with school enrollment of children aged 3 to 6 years; Women’s witnessing of IPV against their mothers was significantly associated with children’s school attendance (OR range: 1.03-1.19); 2) After further adjusting for women-level predictors, women's physical IPV experience did not have a significant effect on children’s early school attendance (OR = 0.91, 95%CI[0.83, 1.01]). In the households with women who witnessed IPV against their mothers, children aged 3 to 6 years were more likely to attend school (OR = 1.17, 95%CI[1.03,1.32]); 3) We additionally explored whether there was a significant interaction between our two primary predictors, but the interaction term was found to be insignificant (p>.7); 4) Additional significant household-level covariates positively associated with children’s enrollment in early childhood education include greater versus lesser wealth, scheduled and general caste versus scheduled tribe, Hindu compared with other religions, higher versus the lower number of children, and female versus male-led households. Significant women-level variables were older age, higher education, work for pay, and exposure to media. Child-level variables associated with the outcome were older age and female sex; 5) The year of the interview was a significant correlate with our outcome, which is not surprising as the COVID-19 pandemic did not affect 2019 data but was likely highly affecting 2021 data.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedFor this study, we used the fifth round of India's Demographic and Health Survey (DHS). 26,990 children in the age group of 3-6 years who belonged to a household sampled for the domestic violence module were considered in our analytic sample.
The primary outcome of our study was the early education enrollment of children aged 3 to 6 years. We constructed a binary variable to capture that and coded it “1” if the child ever attended school in the year 2019-2020 and “0” if the child never attended school in the year 2019-2020.
We considered two independent variables in our analysis: 1) women’s experiences of physical IPV and 2) women’s witnessing of IPV against their mothers. We captured women’s experience of physical IPV as a binary variable using questions in the survey that asked women if they had ever been a) pushed or shaken, b) slapped, c) punched, d) kicked or dragged, e) strangled or burnt, f) threatened with a knife/gun g) arm-twisted or hair-pulled by their husband in the past 12 months. We also created a binary variable to capture women’s witnesses of IPV between parents. In the survey, women were asked “As far as you know, did your father ever beat your mother?”
We included a number of variables that could potentially confound the relationship between our independent variables and our outcome. At the household level, we included household wealth, place of residence, caste, religion, sex of household head, number of preschool-age children, and the year of interview. Variables related to women included age, the highest level of education, paid work in the past 12 months, exposure to media, and exposure to the internet. Finally, variables related to children included their age and sex.
Both crude and multi-predictor logistic regressions were conducted. We performed all analyses using survey weights accounting for the primary sampling unit, and strata to restore the representativeness of the data and to get reliable estimates of standard errors.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThis study contributes to not only research on IPV but also its effect on children’s early education enrollment, which has never been discovered in the context of India. The current study tests the association between physical IPV experiences of women and early education entry of children in the same household. After adjusting for women-level covariates, there is no significant association between physical IPV experiences and children’s enrollment in early education. However, our results indicate that children from households where women experienced physical IPV are less likely to enroll in early education. Results from both the crude and bivariate logistic regressions show a strong negative relationship between women’s physical IPV experience and children’s early education attendance. After adjusting for household- and child-level covariates, the significance decreases drastically, but still meets statistically significant thresholds. Household factors, such as wealth, religion, caste, and the number of preschool-age children in the household, may affect children’s school entry. After adjusting for women-level indicators, such as women’s education level, age, compensation, and media exposure, the significant effect disappears. These findings may indicate that women’s empowerment facilitates early entry in early childhood education programs and affecting women’s control may delay entry.
Women witnessing IPV between parents is surprisingly related to higher odds of children, in the same household, entering early education programs. Within women who have witnessed parental IPV, the percentage of them who reported experiencing physical IPV is higher. One possible explanation for this can be that women who witnessed IPV between their parents as children may be more willing to advocate for children’s well-being in the households to prevent them from traumatizing by the experience eventually.
References1. IIPS. National Family Health Survey-5 (NFHS-5). Mumbai, India, 2022.
2. Chowdhury S, Singh A, Kasemi N, Chakrabarty M. Decomposing the gap in intimate partner violence between Scheduled Caste and General category women in India: An analysis of NFHS-5 data. SSM - Population Health 2022; 19: 101189.
3. Maher CA, Hayes BE. Association Between Disabilities, Educational Attainment, Literacy, and Intimate Partner Violence: Findings from the Indian National Family Health Surveys. Asian Journal of Criminology 2022.
4. Kothari R, Husain Z, Dutta M. Understanding the Geography of Victimization: A Spatial Analysis of Intimate Partner Violence in India. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2022: 08862605221120898.
5. Alemann C, Daga G, Leer J, Boo L. Intimate Partner Violence and Early Childhood DevelopmentViolência por parceiro íntimo e desenvolvimento na primeira infância. Revista Panamericana de Salud Publica= Pan American Journal of Public Health 2022; 46: e195-e.
6. Geffner R, Igelman RS, Zellner J. The effects of intimate partner violence on children: Routledge; 2014.
7. Carpenter GL, Stacks AM. Developmental effects of exposure to Intimate Partner Violence in early childhood: A review of the literature. Children and Youth Services Review 2009; 31(8): 831-9.
8. Gautsch L, Singh AK, Caduff A, Singh A, McDougal LP, Raj A. Understanding Sex and Geographical Differences in School Non-Attendance in India: The Need for Greater Focus on Rural Girls. San Diego, CA, 2019.
9. Gupta A. Global and local discourses in India’s policies for early childhood education: policy borrowing and local realities. Comparative Education 2022; 58(3): 364-82.
14. Communities, Families and Schooling in Educational Research
Paper
Living Well In The Aftermath Of Separation And Divorce: The Role Of Teachers, Schools And Early Childhood Services
Linda Mahony
University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia
Presenting Author: Mahony, Linda
Divorce has become a common phenomenon across the world (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021; Gähler et al., 2009; Office for National Statistics, 2022; Statistics New Zealand, 2022; United States Census Bureau, 2022) and affects a substantial proportion of children. While some children readily adjust to their parents’ separation and divorce, other children exhibit difficulty adjusting emotionally, socially, and demonstrate poorer academic outcomes when compared with children with married parents (Amato, 2001; Amato & Keith, 1991; Anthony et al., 2014; Eriksen et al., 2017; Fergusson et al., 2014; Schaan & Vogele, 2016; Sigle-Rushton et al., 2014; Song et al., 2012).
Separation and divorce have consequences beyond the family and those consequences may involve teachers. This study addresses this gap in the literature by examining the perspectives of separated and divorced parents of what living well means for them and their family in the context of their separation and divorce, and the role of teachers, schools and early childhood services in assisting them to realise these aspirations.
While there is much research about the emotional, social, behavioural, and academic effects of separation and divorce and diverse family composition, there is a paucity of research focusing on the nexus with education and how teachers work with children and their families. Studies have revealed teachers valued communication and collaboration with parents experiencing separation and divorce which enabled teachers to support their children (Cottongim, 2002; Ellington, 2003; King, 2007; Mahony et al., 2015a). The few studies with teachers investigating their work with children and families experiencing separation and divorce showed that when teachers had knowledge of the unique family circumstances, they adjusted their practices to suit the individual needs of children and families (Lee & Walsh, 2004; Mahony et al., 2015a, 2015b; Øverland et al., 2012; Webb & Blond, 1995). Teachers see children for a greater proportion of time each day than any other adult other than children’s parents. Therefore, teachers, schools and early childhood services are in a strategic position to promote wellbeing and learning in children experiencing parental separation and divorce.
Relevant to this study is the influence teachers and families can have on children. Teachers may be able to serve the children in their care and their families if they understand them better. Teachers, schools and early childhood services endeavour to uphold the aspirations families have for their children and their family and readily support children and families as needed. However, teachers, schools and early childhood services need to be confident that their practices enable all children and families to flourish regardless of their family circumstance. In some instances, these practices may need adjusting to suit the needs of children and families experiencing parental separation and divorce. First, teachers, schools and early childhood services need to develop an understanding of what children and families experiencing parental separation and divorce need and want so that they can work with them in ways that support them and promote wellbeing and learning (Mahony et al. 2015a).
The aim of this study was to understand the perspectives of separated and divorced parents of what living well means for them and their family in the context of their separation and divorce, and the role of teachers, schools and early childhood services in assisting them to realise these aspirations.
The research questions guiding this chapter are:
- What are parents’ aspirations for their children and themselves to live well in the aftermath of separation and divorce?
- What practices of teachers, schools and early childhood services enable and constrain families’ ability to live well during the process of separation and divorce and into the future?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedParticipants
Twelve parents were purposefully selected to participate in the project (Warren, 2002). Parents were recruited by advertising through Government family organisations and services dedicated to keeping families safe, well, strong and connected (e.g. Family Relationships Australia and Family Services Australia) and by snowball sampling whereby participants referred other potential participants to the study.
Semi-structured interviews
Parents were asked to reflect on the past to inform their vision of the future for themselves and their children. Parents were asked what it means for them to live well, and what they consider is a world worth living in for all. Parents were also asked a series of questions about the practices of teachers, schools or early childhood services to explore what parents considered their children’s teachers could have done to help their children and family, and what they considered teachers could have avoided that was not helpful for their children and their family at this time.
Data analysis
The research questions created a lens for data analysis. First, data were analysed using thematic analysis to identify themes related to the first research question to understand parents’ aspirations for their children and themselves to live well in the aftermath of separation and divorce. Data were analysed using two phases of coding: initial and intermediate coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). During initial coding, interview transcripts were read, and all possible categories were listed. During intermediate coding, these initial categories were grouped together with similar categories to form themes (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). These themes focused on emotional and social wellbeing.
Next, the interview data were analysed to explore the second research question, which was to identify those practices of teachers, early childhood services and schools that enabled and constrained these family’s ability to live well during the process of separation and divorce. Themes identified from the first research question focused analysis to identify practices that aligned to the themes of emotional and social wellbeing. Elements of the theory of practice architectures were used to better understand those practices of teachers, schools and early childhood services that parents considered helpful to promote wellbeing and learning and realise their aspirations for their children and family. To be specific, those practices that ‘enabled’ or had an adverse effect or ‘constrained’ wellbeing and adjustment to their changed family circumstances were identified.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsSeparated and divorced parents talked holistically with a particular focus on emotional and social wellbeing of their children and themselves. Parents were overwhelmingly concerned with their children being happy. Parents reported several aspects that contributed to them realising their aspirations for their children and themselves.
• Parents considered promoting and maintaining open communication between themselves and teachers, and between teachers and children to be imperative to realising optimal emotional and social wellbeing where they and their children felt safe, happy, supported, respected and accepted, and socially connected.
• Parents felt that school sites and early childhood services had potential to create sites where families can meet, connect, share, and learn. One role of these sites would be to provide support for children and families during the process of separation and divorce.
• Positive relationships were imperative to build and maintain communication and collaboration between parents; children; and teachers, schools and early childhood services.
This study has potential to transform how schools and teachers interact with children and families experiencing separation and divorce so that wellbeing and learning are maximised. It is considered that when we understand the intricacies of practices, we can focus on transforming practices to replicate those practices that enable wellbeing and learning, and work towards adjusting those practices that constrain or pose as a barrier to children and families realising their aspirations to live well in the aftermath of parental separation and divorce. This study has implications for the development of school-wide and system wide policy, processes, and procedures for working with children and families experiencing separation and divorce and other social diversity.
ReferencesAmato, P. R. (2001). Children of divorce in the 1990s: An update of the Amato and Keith
(1991) meta-analysis. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 355–370. https://10.1037/0893-3200.15.3.355.
Amato, P. & Keith, B. (1991). Parental divorce and the wellbeing of children: A meta-
analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 110(1), 26-46. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.110.1.26
Anthony, C., DiPerna, J., & Amato, P. (2014). Divorce, approaches to learning, and children’s
achievement: A longitudinal analysis of mediated and moderated effects. Journal of School Psychology, 52(3), 249-261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2014.03.003
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2021). Marriages and Divorces, Australia, 2020.
https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/people-and-communities/marriages-and-divorces-australia/latest-release
Corbin, J. M., & Strauss, A. L. (2008). Basics of qualitative research (3rd ed. ). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Erikson, H., Hvidtfeldt, C., & Lilleor, H. (2017). Family disruption and social, emotional and
behavioural functioning in middle childhood. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(4), 1077-1089. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0631-2
Fergusson, D., Mcleod, G., & Horwood, L. (2014). Parental separation/divorce in childhood
and partnership outcomes at age 30. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(4), 352-360. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12107
Mahony, L., Lunn, J., Petriwskyj, & Walsh, K. (2015a). The decision-making processes of early childhood teachers when working with children experiencing parental separation and divorce. Early Child Development and Care, 185(7), 1088-1108. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2014.980405
Mahony, L., Walsh, K., Lunn, J., & Petriwskyj, A. (2015b). Teachers facilitating support for
young children experiencing parental separation and divorce. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(10), 2841-3852. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-0088-0
Office for National Statistics. (2022). Divorces in England and Wales: 2020.
https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/divorce/bulletins/divorcesinenglandandwales/latest#what-percentage-of-marriages-end-in-divorce
Øverland, K., Thorsen, A. A., & Størksen, I. (2012). The beliefs of teachers and daycare staff
regarding children of divorce: A Q methodological study. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(3), 321-323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2011.10.010
Schaan, V., & Vogele, C. (2016). Resilience and rejection sensitivity mediate long-term
outcomes of parental divorce. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 25(11), 1267-1269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-016-0893-7
Statistics New Zealand. (2022). Marriages, civil unions, and divorces: Year ended December
2021. https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/marriages-civil-unions-and-divorces-year-ended-december-2021#:~:text=Divorces-,In%202021%3A,2011%2C%20and%208%2C748%20in%202001.
Sigle-Rushton, W., Lyngstad, T., Andersen, P., & Kravdal, O. (2014). Proceed with caution?
Parents’ union dissolution and children’s educational achievement. Journal of Marriage and Family, 76(1), 161-174. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12075
Song, C., Benin, M., & Glick, J. (2012). Dropping out of high school: The effects of family
structure and family transitions. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 53(1), 18-33. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2012.635964
United States Census Bureau. (2022). Marriage and Divorce.
https://www.census.gov/topics/families/marriage-and-divorce.html
Webb, K., & Blond, J. (1995). Teacher knowledge: The relationship between caring and
knowing. Teacher & Teacher Education, 11(6), 611-625. https://doi.org/10.1016/0742-051X(95)00017-E
14. Communities, Families and Schooling in Educational Research
Paper
Early Childhood Tutoring and the Kindergarten Admission Rat Race Abstract
M. Nutsa Kobakhidze1, Janisa Hui2
1The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong S.A.R. (China); 2The University of Maryland (USA)
Presenting Author: Kobakhidze, M. Nutsa;
Hui, Janisa
Objectives and Research Questions
This presentation focuses on a phenomenon of kindergarten admission preparation which is a commercial education market offering training in social skills, mock interview, CV editing and parent consultation. Although this study is contextualized in in Hong Kong, it has wider relevance internationally and in Europe because high competition to get to best schools and accompanying private tutoring market exists almost everywhere. This literature review demonstrated that early tutoring is not an exotic phenomenon and nor is it exclusive to Asia; it exists in USA (Green, 2007) and the UK (Ang,2014).
Through a qualitative study, this paper explores what drives kindergarten admission competition by studying the characteristics of the education market and perspectives from the stakeholders. Two main research questions are addressed: (1) How do parents prepare their children for kindergarten admission? (2) What contributes to the competitive nature of kindergarten admission?
Theoretical framework
Educational outcomes are closely related to early educational experiences (Reynolds et al., 2018; Taggart et al., 2015). Many studies have been done to explain parents’ behaviors in investing on their children’s future from a social, economical and cultural perspective (Brown et al., 2011; Vincent & Maxwell, 2016). Given that kindergarten admission is a highly selective process, parents often turned to the private commercial market and get support from preparation services. Although the concept of private tutoring, also known as shadow education, has been widely studied in the education field (e.g. Bray et al., 2014; Entrich, 2020), early childhood tutoring is an understudied area.
Early tutoring can be considered as a part of the global phenomenon of private tutoring (Bray, 2021; Zhang, 2021). In 2026, it is predicted that the global private tutoring market will reach US$200 billion in value (Global Industry Analysts, 2022). Kindergarten admission preparation services is a form of “early tutoring”.
Early childhood education is undeniably crucial to child development; yet, scholars questioned whether tutoring young children is developmentally appropriate. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) remarked that being able to play and relax are critical to children. Being tutored at a young age could be problematic since it adds activity-related stress (Brown et al., 2011) and reduces play time (Halpen, 2002). Furthermore, commercialized education services, including kindergarten interview admission services, creates an equity and access issue.
Parents are concerned about their children would be missing out if they do not receive tutoring at a young age. Some parents believe that offering tutoring means “good parenting”. Vincent and Maxwell (2016) coined the term “responsibilization” of parenthood, which refers to parents’ perceived responsibilities as parents are responsible for children’s problems. Take South Korea as an example, early tutoring is a social norm and parents see it as a responsible investment on their children (Woo & Huges, 2015). Although early tutoring is common in the society, scholars tried to understand the impact of early tutoring in the realm of child development and mental health. Early tutoring can be seen as an extra curricular activities that is correlated with school readiness, but it also has a negative correlation with children’s enjoyment of those activities (Chiu & Lau, 2018).
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedUsing qualitative methods, we conducted 78 semi-structured interviews from June to September 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants included 29 parents, 24 kindergarten teachers, 10 tutors and 15 early childhood scholars from local universities and non-government organizations. The sample also included policy-makers from the Hong Kong Education Bureau. Given the local government’s advice on COVID-19 protocols, participants were offered options to participate the interviews on phone (n=39), on Zoom (n=27) and face-to-face (n=10). In total, 40 interviews were conducted in Cantonese and 38 were conducted in English. We adapted our research plan due to the pandemic, and made methodological modification concerning recruiting research participants, redesigning instruments, streamlining of data collection approaches and optimizing existing data sources. Our approached echoes the AERA theme of pushing traditional modes of collecting and sharing findings in pursuit of truth with consequences. As a team of women researchers, we juggled multiple responsibilities brought by the changing environment in the pandemic. Responsibilities included managing children’s’ online schooling, moving abroad and changing jobs alongside doing this study amid the pandemic. In the process of intensive data collection, we paid special attention to the mental well-being of both researchers and respondents.
The audio-recorded interviews served as the main data source of this study and each interview lasted for about 0.5 to 1.5 hour. The recordings of the interviews were transcribed in verbatim and Cantonese transcripts were translated to English by research assistants who were fluent in English and Cantonese. The transcripts were coded using NVivo (release 1.6.1) following the steps of thematic analysis (Nowell et al., 2017). Considering the access of participants due to COVID-19, we also diversified our data sources by including market materials and websites of educational centers to inform our answers to the research questions. We also tried to recruit participants in multiple ways, such as sending standardized recruitment messages via WhatsApp messenger, as well as using hashtag to search for related content and contacting the content creator, who are parents, teachers and tutors. For data validation purposes, we conducted member checking by organizing a webinar and presenting our findings to the research participants. Our participants shared feedback and asked questions to help finalize the conclusions.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThis study is one of the first to explore the emerging market for kindergarten admission preparatory services in Hong Kong and internationally. We traced admission-related competition through the eyes of parents, teachers, company tutors, and early childhood educators, finding that there is a fierce competition for limited slots in “good” kindergartens as perceived by parents.
First, the findings of this study demonstrated that there are hierarchies among kindergartens within the school system in Hong Kong which favors middle-class families. The kindergarten admission preparation services represent a market that is tailored for benefiting the middle class. It would be crucial to consider fairness and equity by ensuring that good education is accessible to all children despite their socioeconomic background. This study may be particularly helpful for policymakers and advocates who are passionate about improving educational inequalities and the related negative consequences. Our findings signal marketization of education at early childhood age which needs more scholarly attention. By ignoring how the education market is targeting kindergarten admissions and shaping parents’ decisions, beliefs, and perceptions, we risk ignoring the hidden mechanisms of inequalities maintained and perpetuated by education institutions, commercial market, and family practices.
This kindergarten rat race is found in many parts of the world and this paper aims to draw both scholarly and policy attention on the level of competition in early childhood. Our study offers new evidence about the relatively new phenomenon on kindergarten admission preparation services and knowing these factors that drive the commercial market on kindergarten admission helps researchers to better understand the impacts of early tutoring when children are further along in their education trajectory.
ReferencesAng, L. (2014). Preschool or prep school? Rethinking the role of early years education. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 15(2), 185-199.
Bray, M., Zhan, S., Lykins, C., Wang, D., & Kwo, O. (2014). Differentiated demand for private supplementary tutoring: Patterns and implications in Hong Kong secondary education. Economics of Education Review, 38, 24-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2013.10.002
Brown, S. L., Nobiling, B. D., Teufel, J., & Birch, D. A. (2011). Are kids too busy? Early adolescents’ perceptions of discretionary activities, overscheduling, and stress. Journal of School Health, 81(9), 574-580. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2011.00629.x
Chiu, C. Y., & Lau, E. Y. H. (2018). Extracurricular participation and young children's outcomes in Hong Kong: Maternal involvement as a moderator. Children and Youth Services Review, 88, 476-485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.03.051
Entrich, S. R. (2020). Gender- and SES-specific disparities in shadow education: Compensation for boys, status upgrade for girls? Evidence from the German life study. Orbis Scholae, 14(2), 13-38. https://doi.org/10.14712/23363177.2020.10
Green, E. (2007, September 10). Documentary chronicles city kindergarten admissions. The New York Sun. https://www.nysun.com/new-york/documentary-chronicles-city-
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Global Industry Analysts (2022). Private tutoring: World market report. StrategyR. https://www.strategyr.com/market-report-private-tutoring-forecasts-global-industry-analysts-inc.asp
Halpern, R. (2002). A different kind of child development institution: The history of after-school programs for low-income children. Teachers College Record, 104(2), 178-211. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9620.00160
Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. (2017). Thematic analysis: Striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917733847
Reynolds, A., Ou, S., & Temple, J. (2018). A multicomponent, preschool to third grade preventive intervention and educational attainment at 35 years of age. JAMA Pediatrics, 172(3), 247-256. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.4673
Taggart, B., Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., & Siraj, I. (2015). Effective pre-school, primary and secondary education project (EPPSE 3-16+): How pre-school influences children and young people's attainment and developmental outcomes over time.
Vincent, C., & Maxwell, C. (2016). Parenting priorities and pressures: Furthering understanding of ‘concerted cultivation’. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 37(2), 269-281. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2015.1014880
Woo, H., & Hodges, N. N. (2015). Education fever: Exploring private education consumption motivations among Korean parents of preschool children. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 44(2), 127-142. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26647-3_43
Zhang, W. (2021). Non-state actors in education: The nature, dynamics and regulatory implications of private supplementary tutoring. Background Paper for the Global Education Monitoring Report. UNESCO.
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