17. Histories of Education
Paper
Soviet Policy of Russification: Its Influence on School Education in Ukraine in 50s – 80s of 20th Century
Tetiana Havrylenko1, Maryana Natsiuk2, Svitlana Strilets1
1T.H. Shevchenko National University ‘Chernihiv Colehium’, Ukraine; 2Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk National Pedagogical University, Ukraine
Presenting Author: Havrylenko, Tetiana;
Natsiuk, Maryana
In Ukraine, the policy of Russification also known as de-Ukrainization, denationalization, started in the late 17th century in the period of Moskov tzarism and continued to be carried out by Russian empire and was succeeded by Soviet Union. For almost 300 years, the Russian regimes targeted their efforts to impose Russian national and political superiority with the subsequent assimilation of non-Russian nationalities residing in the Ukrainian territory through implanting the Russian language and culture.
The policy of Russification got its extreme reveletaion during Soviet occupational regime in 50s – 80s of the 20th century. At that time, it was dramatically growing and was implemented in all spheres of social life, education in particular. This process became obvious after the law 'On intensifying the connection between school and life and on the further development of the system of public education in the Ukrainian SSR' (1959) was passed, which de jure provided students with the right to study in their native language, and enabled parents to choose the language of education for their children, however, de facto, it became a powerful tool of purposeful Russification of school education. Since that time, there were evident processes of a considerable increase in the number of schools with the Russian language of instruction, alocating more studying time for learning Russian in the curriculum, the Russification of the content of education. Thus, school curricular emphasized that learning Russian 'has a great educational value, contributes to intensifying Ukrainian - Russian friendship, and involves students into the rich culture of the great Russian people’.
The Russification of school education took on an overt character after the adoption of the resolution 'On measures for further improvement of studying and teaching of the Russian language in the Ukrainian SSR' (1978), which focused on the introduction of the compulsory learning Russian from the 1st grade in schools with the Ukrainian language of instruction from 1980/81; on the introduction of class grouping for learning Russian; on the improvement of programs, textbooks and teaching materials for teaching Russian aiming at solving educational tasks, in particular, 'implanting students’ love" for the Russian language.
Another attack on the Ukrainian as a language of instruction and as a subject was carried out by the resolution 'On additional measures to improve learning Russian in secondary schools and other educational institutions of the Union Republics' (1983). Adopting the document resulted in expanding the network of schools and classes with in-depth learning Russian; increased publication of educational, methodological and children's literature in Russian; offering additional payments and benefits to all Russian teachers etc.
The policy of Russification reached its peak in the mid-80s. The analysis of archive materials revealed that initially hidden and later overt Russification led to a significant shift in correlation between schools with Ukrainian and Russian languages of instruction. Therefore, while in 1954/55, 86.4% schools had Ukrainian language of instruction and 13.6% - Russian, in 1983/84 this correlation looked respectively - 28.8% and 71.2%. By the mid-80s of the 20th century the number of schools with the Ukrainian language of instruction significantly decreased in Donetsk, Luhansk, Dnipropetrovsk and Kharkiv regions whereas there was none left in the Crimean region. The result of a long-term purposeful policy of Russification was a considerable reduction not only of schools, but also of the contingent of learnes with Ukrainian as a language of their studies. In addition, the vast majority of them were students of rural schools. In cities and industrial areas, school education was almost totally russified.
Consequently, systematic and purposeful Russification imposed for decades led to development of young generation’s contempt to a mother tongue, culture, traditions.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe methodological basis of the research is the source science approach (provided the opportunity to identify and analyze various types of sources that highlight the issue of Russification of school education within the defined chronological limit) and historiographic approach (contributed to the identification of the state of the problem in the science of history of education), as well as the epistemological principles of historicism and objectivity , systematicity. A set of methods was used to implement the research goal: general scientific (analysis, synthesis, comparison, systematization, generalization, which became the basis of the study), historical-structural (contributed to the development of the research structure), historical-genetic (allowed to systematize factual information).
During the study of the Russification of Ukrainian school education in the 1950s and 1980s legal documents related to language policy and school education of the late Soviet era and the first decade of Ukraine's state independence were used, a significant amount of documents and materials stored in the funds of the Central State Archive of authority and administration of Ukraine, as well as curricula, programs, textbooks used in schools with the Ukrainian language of instruction within certain chronological limits were studied.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsSignificant changes in language policy took place in the late1980s. In 1989, the Verkhovna Rada (Supreme Council) of the Ukrainian SSR adopted the Law 'On Languages in the Ukrainian SSR' (1989), which legally established the status of Ukrainian as the state language and made it mandatory for all students to learn it. Democratic changes in society, the restoration of Ukraine's state independence in 1991 contributed to the revival of the national school, with the increased focus on learning Ukrainian, making the educational content more Ukrainian oriented, and the development of students’ national identity. Despite these changes, the long-lasting policy of Russification made its impact on preventing Ukrainian school from the development. The documents of the Ministry of Education of Ukraine from the early 90s of the 20th century evidenced this fact, mentioning the slow pace of restoration of Ukrainian schools and the introduction of the Ukrainian language into the educational process, especially in the eastern and southern regions of Ukraine (in the settlements of Snizhnyi, Khartsyzka, Selidovo, In Yenakiyevo, Yasynuvatiy, Avdiyivtsi, as well as Volodarskyi, Novoazovskyi, Yasinuvatskyi districts of Donetsk region, not a single school or class with the Ukrainian language of instruction functioned, furthermore, it is worth mentioning that exactly this area has been under Russian occupation since 2014). The documents also highlight that such subjects as PE, art, handmade were taught in Russian even at schools with Ukrainian language of instruction, as well as they evidenced facts of school authority opposition against Ukrainian language introduction. Therefore, in 1993, the Ministry of Education of Ukraine made a decision, among other measures, to equip educational institutions only with teaching staff who could teach and educate students in Ukrainian.
Nowadays, in addition to sovereignty and territorial integrity protection, Ukrainian people fiercely struggle against Russian aggression for preserving their cultural space and national identity.
ReferencesHavrylenko,T. (2019). Rozvytok pochatkovoi osvity v Ukraini u druhii polovyni XX–na pochatku XXI stolittia: istoryko-pedahohichnyi aspekt: monohrafiia (Eng. Transl. Development of primary education in Ukraine in the second half of the XX–beginning of the XXI century: historical and pedagogical aspect: monograph). Kyiv: Feniks.
Zvedeni vidomosti pro rozpodil zahalnoosvitnikh shkil Ministerstva osvity Ukrainskoi RSR za movamy navchannia na pochatok 1954/55 navchalnoho roku (Eng. Transl. Summary information on the distribution of secondary schools of the Ministry of Education of the Ukrainian SSR by languages of instruction at the beginning of the 1954/55 academic year) (1954). Tsentralnyi derzhavnyi arkhiv vyshchykh orhaniv vlady ta upravlinnia Ukrainy, f. 166, op. 15, spr. 1638, ark. 1.
Zvedeni statystychni zvity Ministerstva osvity Ukrainskoi RSR (Eng. Transl. Consolidated statistical reports of the Ministry of Education of the Ukrainian SSR) (1984). Tsentralnyi derzhavnyi arkhiv vyshchykh orhaniv vlady ta upravlinnia Ukrainy, f. 166, op. 15, spr. 9224, ark. 27.
Pro zakhody po dalshomu udoskonalenniu vyvchennia i vykladannia rosiiskoi movy v Ukrainskii RSR: postanova Rady Ministriv Ukrainskoi RSR vid 02.11.1978 (Eng. Transl. On measures to further improve the study and teaching of the Russian language in the Ukrainian SSR: resolution of the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR dated November 2, 1978) (1978). Retrieved on January 13, 2023 from https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/518-78-п?lang=uk
Pro zmitsnennia zviazku shkoly z zhyttiam i pro dalshyi rozvytok systemy narodnoi osvity v Ukrainskii RSR : Zakon Ukrainskoi RSR vid 17.04.1959 (Eng. Transl. On strengthening the connection between school and life and on the further development of the public education system in the Ukrainian SSR: Law of the Ukrainian SSR dated April 17, 1959) (1959). Zbirnyk nakaziv ta instruktsii Ministerstva osvity Ukrainskoi RSR, 8, 2–14.
Pro movy v Ukrainskii RSR : Zakon Ukrainskoi RSR vid 28.10.1989 (Eng. Transl. On Languages in the Ukrainian SSR: Law of the Ukrainian SSR dated October 28, 1989) (1989). Retrieved on January 13, 2023 from http://zakon5.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/8312-11
Pro nedoliky u vprovadzhenni ukrainskoi movy navchannia u navchalno-vykhovnykh zakladakh (Eng. Transl. About shortcomings in the implementation of the Ukrainian language of instruction in educational institutions) (1993). Informatsiinyi zbirnyk Ministerstva osvity Ukrainy, 19, 7–9.
Prohrama z rosiiskoi movy dlia 1 klasu zahalnoosvitnikh shkil z ukrainskoiu movoiu navchannia (Eng. Transl. The Russian language program for the 1st grade of secondary schools with the Ukrainian language of instruction) (1980). Pochatkova shkola, 2, 75–76.
Prohramy vosmyrichnoi shkoly (Eng. Transl. Eight-year school programs) (1971). Kyiv: Radianska shkola.
17. Histories of Education
Paper
Between a Hammer and a Hard Place: the Concept of Internationalisation in Central and Eastern Europe after 1990
Monika Orechova
Vilnius University, Lithuania
Presenting Author: Orechova, Monika
There is an argument that higher education is in its essence international, however the current focus and prevalence of higher education internationalisation (if not in action, then at least in rhetoric) is a comparatively novel phenomenon (de Wit, 2020). Taking into account the development of the field over the past 30 years, internationalisation research remains Western European driven, in content as well as in disseminating a certain understanding of internationalisation (Bedenlier, Kondakci, & Zawacki-Richter, 2018). It stands to reason that an open higher education system that Western Europe enjoyed in the second half of the 20th century influenced the development of that understanding of internationalisation as well as its prominence in international research.
Before 1990, in the other side of the iron curtain, in Soviet-occupied Central and Eastern Europe, however, there was a different internationalisation. The Soviet regime used the term ‘friendship of nations’ to refer to a somewhat superficial cultural exchange focused on non-threatening ethnic customs that was loosely linked to education. The word ‘internationalisation’, on the other hand, was used to denote policies that purportedly intended to bring the entire Soviet Union together by embracing the common way, while in actuality it was used to further the russification agenda (Grybkauskas, 2013). Actual exchange in higher education or education research was limited even among the member countries of the Warsaw pact and the Soviet Union (Zelvys, 2015).
The vastly different experiences and understandings of internationalisation came into contact after 1990 when the Central European countries left the Warsaw Pact and the Baltic states regained their statehood and independence. While their precise education reforms may have been different, all these countries were led by a common desire to ‘catch-up to Europe’ (Dakowska & Harmsen, 2015). Internationalisation (in the Western understanding), thus, was embraced and universities in Central and Eastern Europe become active participants in the early 2000s. As current research shows, the notion of internationalisation is rarely defined or re-defined in the scholarly publications of Central and Eastern Europe (Orechova, 2021). When implementation is concerned, a certain reluctance emerges in the shape of what Leisyte et al. (2015) aptly named ‘symbolic compliance’: formal conformity with the new regulations is maintained, yet, the measures are re-contextualised in different ways depending on the experiences and everyday practices of the academic staff, the type of institution and the discipline they represent. That is, the system does not undergo any change, just a slight recalibration and whatever internationalisation means is somewhat hidden in the translation.
This proposal, therefore, endeavours to investigate the construction of the concept of internationalisation in Central and Eastern Europe after 1990 by analysing the internationally published scholarly works on Central and Eastern European education from 1990 to 2000. Central to the analysis is the notion of concept as “a concentrate of several substantial meanings” (Kosseleck, 2004, p. 85) from the study of Conceptual History (Begriffsgeschichte). This analysis is primarily concerned with a particular academic discourse in a relatively non-distant past. This brings forth the importance of discourse. We maintain that discourse is organised around concepts (Ifversen, 2003) and acknowledge the increasingly conceptual nature of discourse (Krzyżanowski, 2016). Thus, we assert that both discourses and concepts are not just representations of social reality but also its constituents. The proposed research aims to critically interrogate the usage of ‘internationalisation’ in scholarly work to elucidate upon the various layers of meaning of the concept as it was being introduced into the scholarship of Central and Eastern Europe after 1990.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe methodology of the proposed research largely follows the guidelines of Conceptual History. The methods include close reading and analysis of scholarly work published internationally on education in Central and Eastern Europe over the period from 1990 to 2000. The data sources consist of publications indexed in international education databases Education Source (EBSCO) and Central & Eastern European Academic Source (EBSCO) on the topic of education in Central and Eastern Europe. The selection criteria include the mentioning of Central and/or Eastern Europe or any of the countries in the region in the publication title as well as referring to internationalisation or the word ‘international’ in the abstract.
To elucidate the findings of the analysis, a semantic field of internationalisation will be constructed. A ‘semantic field’ in Conceptual History refers to a visual representation of the layered meanings of the concept in question. It includes concepts that define the concept under examination (paradigmatic field of reference), concepts that describe and clearly delimit the concept under examination (syntagmatic field of reference), concepts that describe the roots, causes and the intended practice of the concept under examination and the systematic opposites (functional antonyms) of the concept.
The time period of 1990 to 2000 is chosen because it is primarily a period of alignment and reflection with regards to education scholarship in and about Central and Eastern Europe, especially with regards to internationalisation. In the early 2000s countries of the region get substantially more involved in international cooperation, boosted by the European Commission funding related to EU membership and it is already the time of doing rather than considering what needs to be done. In essence, by the early 2000s internationalisation has entered the higher education discourse of Central and Eastern Europe and the primary focus is on implementation rather than conceptualisation. The period from 1990 to 2000 provides an opportunity to interrogate the notion while it is still being adopted and see what layers of meaning are given to it and what are potentially removed as it is transferred from Western Europe eastwards.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsSince concepts play a significant role in how we perceive and interact with our daily reality, the way(s) in which we understand a concept affect how we bring that concept to life, especially, if it is a concept with very tangible dimensions, such as that of internationalisation. As the interest to internationalise grows across the world, a deeper understanding of what internationalisation is constructed and understood to be can provide insights for further development of internationalisation across the world. When complex concepts such as internationalisation and its implementation are considered, the discussion on what elements exactly are included in the semantic field of the concept is essential to its successful implementation. Joining the debate on internationalisation and similar terms used in higher education, Whitsed and Green go as far as to say that “the act of renaming “internationalization” is a demonstration of <…> agency in the context of uneven distributions of power across the contested storylines of internationalization” (Whitsed & Green, 2014, p. 107). It stands to reason that an in-depth discussion on what internationalisation is and means in the context of Central and Eastern Europe would benefit the higher education research and practice across the region. Moreover, it can foster meaningful reflection among the research communities across Europe as to whether one part needs to follow another, or is a more equal distribution of power can be considered instead.
ReferencesBedenlier, S., Kondakci, Y., & Zawacki-Richter, O. (2018). Two Decades of Research Into the Internationalization of Higher Education: Major Themes in the Journal of Studies in International Education (1997-2016). Journal of Studies in International Education, 22(2), 108–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315317710093
Dakowska, D., & Harmsen, R. (2015). Laboratories of reform? The Europeanization and internationalization of higher education in Central and Eastern Europe. European Journal of Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/21568235.2014.977318
de Wit, H. (2020). Intelligent Internationalization in Higher Education: Evolving Concepts and Trends. In K. A. Godwin & H. de Wit (Eds.), Intelligent Internationalization. The Shape of Things to Come (pp. 189–198). Leiden|Boston: Brill.
Grybkauskas, S. (2013). Internacionalizmas, tautų draugystė ir patriotizmas sovietinėje nacionalinėje politikoje [Internationalism, friendship of nations and patriotism in soviet national policy]. In Epochas jungiantis nacionalizmas : tautos (de)konstravimas tarpukario, sovietmečio ir posovietmečio Lietuvoje [Epoch-spanning nationalism: (de)construction of nation in interwar, soviet and post-soviet Lithuania] , 205–226.
Ifversen, J. (2003). Text, Discourse, Concept: Approaches to Textual Analysis. Dept . of European Studies, Aarhus University. Constructivism tout court. (7), 60–69.
Leisyte, L., Zelvys, R., & Zenkiene, L. (2015). Re-contextualization of the Bologna process in Lithuania. European Journal of Higher Education, 5(1), 49–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/21568235.2014.951669
Orechova, M. (2021). Internationalisation of Higher Education in Central and Eastern Europe: conceptualisation of the definition inside the region. Acta Paedagogica Vilnensia, 46, 119–131. https://doi.org/10.15388/ACTPAED.46.2021.8
Whitsed, C., & Green, W. (2014). What’s in a Name? A Theoretical Exploration of the Proliferation of Labels for International Education Across the Higher Education Sector. Journal of Studies in International Education, 18(2), 105–119. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315313491117
Zelvys, R. (2015). Two Decades of Changes in Teacher Training in Central and Eastern Europe: the Old Heritage and New Challenges. In P. Vaz, A. Swennen, M. Golan, M. Klink, C. Velzen, M. Lima, … C. Gomes (Eds.), Professional Development of Teacher Educators: Bringing Together Policy, Practice and Research. Proceedings of the 4th ATEE Winter Conference (pp. 165–172). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.4601.6721
17. Histories of Education
Paper
Shaping the professionality of teacher candidates With Diverse Backgrounds: Secondary Teacher Training in Hungary During the Great Depression
Imre Garai
Eötvös Loránd University, Hungary
Presenting Author: Garai, Imre
The Secondary Teacher Training Institution was established in Budapest in 1870 to enhance the professional theoretical knowledge and practice of secondary teacher candidates. In the early phase of its operation, its membership was not compulsoryfor teacher candites, however, this changed after 1924 as the result of the 27th Act of the Parliament in 1924.
The 6th § of the act declared that teacher candidates had to spend their one-year pedagogical practice in a public secondary school, preferably in the practising secondary school designed for the preparation of secondary teacher candidates in 1872. This part of the act also prescribed indirectly that the candidates had to stay for their practice in the same municipality as the teacher training institution was located to ensure the methodological preparation of the candidates parallelly run by the institution during the practising year. The reason for the intention of tightening the criteria of the one-year-long practice was twofold.
First, the secondary teacher training institute wanted to comply with its primary aim of elevating the professionalism of secondary teachers by requiring a standardized pedagogical practice that could strengthen the professionality of individual candidates. Second, before 1924, the practice year was not standardized and thus candidates exploited the shortcomings of the previous legal regulations, which affected the preparedness of the teachers for their duties. The new law and its implementation regulations theoretically ensured that all candidates had to comply with the same standards related to the pedagogical practice.
The primary aim of the paper is to provide an insight into the background of the legal changes and their consequences on teacher candidates from the less affluent social strata in the early 1930s. Since the social background of the secondary teacher candidates slightly changed, those social groups were affected seriously whose family background just made it possible to pursue higher education studies in the Hungarian capital but for a limited period. By extending the length of the staying in the capital, particularly during the period of the Great Depression (between 1929 and 1933) led to an increase in the rate of resining declarations from students with lower social status.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe paper is part of a research project, which aims to reveal the history of the Secondary Teacher Training Institute and the Teacher Examination Committee of the University of Budapest as professional institutions that enhanced the professional training of secondary teachers and scrutinised their qualifications in the interwar period. During the research project archival sources were examined in the National Archives of Hungary, the Archives of the Eötvös Loránd University of Budapest and the Mednyánszky Dénes Library and Archives of the ELTE Eötvös College. Therefore, document analysis of archival sources was employed as a primary method.
Three layers of the analysis could be separated from each other as analytical aspects of the research. The first is related to the nature of the connections between the professional institutions and the Ministry of Religion and Public Education as a governmental entity that regulated the operation of the professional institutions. The second is related to the relationship between the professional entities that existed in the capital and other universities in Hungary. The third entails the inner structures and operational peculiarities of the professional institutions that stand in the focal point of the research.
In the paper, the first and third research aspects will be discussed since the analysis reveal the common endeavour of the ministry and the teacher training institution to elevate the professionality of the teacher candidates but also shed light on some aspects of the peculiarities of the inner operation processes of the teacher training institution.
Additionally, a descriptive statistical analysis as an additional method will also be used in the paper to determine the social status of teacher candidates in the early 1930s. Besides the archival sources, the Annual Reports of the Hungarian Statistical Bureau are examined for the statistical description of the students. The main and subcategorical system of the census in 1930 will be applied to classify the social status of students through the occupation of their legal guardians. The choice of the categorial system could be underpinned by the fact that a sophisticated categorial system was used in 1930, which enables researchers to rank and thus compare data from the early 1920s and the early 1940s.
As for the interpretation theoretical framework, the critical approach of the professional theories is utilized since the professional groups and the state regulated the operation of professional occupations together in the Central and Eastern European regions.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsPreliminary results suggest that the traditional recruitment basis of secondary teachers from the main category of civil services was still overrepresented among the candidates but a slight shift could be detected in the early 1930s towards the students with agricultural and industrial backgrounds. Employees in these sectors were able to send their children to universities, however, students with these backgrounds were always on the brink of being dropped out for insufficient financial resources.
The economic crisis affected seriously those social strata who were lack of capital or properties and secured their income as employees due to the sharp decrease in their standard of living. The bitter consequences of the economic collapse combined with the standardization of professional training that required additional financial resources put them in a fragile situation that led to the suspension of their studies temporarily or leaving the professional training permanently.
Moreover, the endeavour of the government and the secondary teacher training institution remained unfulfilled to standardize the one-year-long pedagogical practice since pastoral and clergyman candidates were granted immunity from spending their entire practice in the Hungarian capital. Thus, those teacher candidates were inflicted severely by the increased costs of fulfilling the requirements of the training who were the most vulnerable due to their lower social positions.
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Garai, I. (2019). An Elite Teacher Training Institution. The History of the Baron Eötvös József College 1895–1950. ELTE Eötvös College.
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Gyáni, G. (2004). Magyarország társadalomtörténete a Horthy-orban. In Gyáni, G. & Kövér, Gy. (ed.), Magyarország története a reformkortól a második világháborúig (pp. 187–399) Osiris Kiadó.
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