10. Teacher Education Research
Paper
Developing Performance Indicators of Intercultural Competence for Preservice Teacher Education
Meng-Huey Su1,2, Martin Valcke1, Pei-I Chou2
1Department of Educational Studies, Ghent University, Belgium; 2Institute of Education, National Sun Yat-sen University, Taiwan
Presenting Author: Su, Meng-Huey
In the context of globalization, the intercultural competence (ICC) has become an indispensable ability to be a global citizen and member of the international community. ICC attracts increasing attention in a wide range of countries and by multi-country organisations; e.g., the European Commission, the US Administration and others (ACE, 2016; Association of International Educators, 2007; Department for Education and Skills, 2004; Meer & Modood, 2012). In higher education, ICC is an avenue to cultivate undergraduates’ intercultural competence to be prepared for the future and global workforce (Griffith, Wolffeld, Armon, Rios & Liu, 2016). For this reason, higher education institutions recruit international students and teachers through internationalization at home, and mobility programs such as Erasmus Programme and European Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students, or the US Fullbright Program to encourage international students and researchers. This allows stakeholders to give opportunities for intercultural communication, understanding, and cooperation. This is in particular through the provision of Immersive Learning opportunities (Beelen & Jones, 2015; Brewer, 2004; Chen & Su, 2021; Mestenhauser, 2003).
ICC implies that its development is fostered in an international environment, through interaction and cooperation with people from different cultures and countries. This is exemplified in ongoing OECD actions (2016, 2018) that assess intercultural competence mastery and development; see the PISA 2018 global competence evaluation for 15-year-old teenagers. This also implies that intercultural education has to start at an early education stage.
The above - in the context of the present study - challenges the competences of preservice primary and secondary teachers (PsTs). Next to their ICC mastery, we should consider competences to develop professional competences for developing their students’ ICC. This plays a role in dealing with students from different cultural backgrounds but also in the development of the ICC of students. These teacher competences question for instance strategies to be adopted to pursue ICC competences. Current practices mainly build on oversea exchange, oversea immersion learning practices. Also evaluation approaches have to be rethought.
An additional question is related to the methodologies to map PsTs’ mastery of ICC. The nature of the ICC competence calls for an investment in qualitative data collection approaches, such as (written) reflections, focus group discussion, open-ended structured questions, semi-structured interviews, critical thinking activities, and field notes are applied to learn the transformation of preservice teachers’ ICC. In the literature, we mainly find quantitative or mixed data collection approaches; see e.g., the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) and the MyCAP (My Cultural Awareness Profile) questions in Su, Valcke and Chou’s (unpublished) research. However, these instruments are not geared to map PsTs’ ICC mastery.
The above brings us to the guiding research questions for the present research:
- Which ICC of preservice teachers are being validated by the teacher education community?
- What are relevant performance indicators that can be linked to the dimensions of preservice teachers' intercultural competence?
The research builds on the results of a systematic literature review to start tackling these research questions.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe present research applies the Delphi Technique to study the output of the literature review. The Delphi technique is suitable to clarify complex concepts from the perspective of stakeholders (Green, 2014; Kaynak, Bloom, & Leibold, 1994; Mitchell & McGoldrick, 1994). According to Delphi Technique, related steps are stated as follows:
1. Participants
In terms of the number of experts, Fowler (2013) advocated that there should be no less than seven while other researchers advocated that there should be no less than ten (Mitchell & McGoldrick, 1994). Prendergast and Marr (1994) believed that experts number of 8-12 people can reduce group errors. The selection of experts needs to be considered that they have been in the relevant research fields and have the profound knowledge and insights on the research topic (Keeney, Hasson, & McKenna, 2001). Based on this, the experts in this study will be 10-12 experts in the field of teacher education, ICC and educational indicators respectively.
2. Instruments, procedures and data processing
After reviewing related literature, the first draft of the items for PsTs’ ICC performance indicators will be applied as the instrument to conduct the investigation twice based on Delphi Technique.
The first investigation is expected to collect 12 valid questionnaires. On the basis of the results of the first round of investigation, the second round investigation will be developed, and also 12 valid questionnaires will also be collected.
The collected data will be processed as below:
(1) List the mode and average of the listed items from all the respondents;
(2) perform the mode ranking of each item;
(3) perform the mean ranking of the same mode;
(4) conduct a single group t-test to see the significance on each item;
(5) decide the fitness and the rank of importance for the items.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe expected results will be divided into the following two parts:
1. The analysis and expected result in the first investigation
In the first investigation, the analysis will be given to see the item fitness and importance. All listed items are sorted based on the mode, and the indicator which ranks at the first place in the mode can be given priority as an important indicator. Based on one group t-test, all the items which will be in the second investigation have to reach statistical significance. If the indicators are statistically significant, these indicators will be included as ICC performance indicators. In addition, the corrections made by 12 experts on the description of items were further integrated as the items used in the second investigation.
2. The analysis and expected result in the second investigation
The modification based on the results of first investigation will be applied in the second investigation. The results of second analysis will also be conducted in the same way as in first step. The final indicators are decided.
Based on the above, this study will propose systematic PsTs’ ICC performance indicators to provide guidelines for examining the effectiveness of PsTs’ ICC performance. It is expected that according to the results, in addition to providing the indicator for PsTs’ ICC performance, it can also be used as the references for assessing the status quo of ICC before cultivating preservice teachers’ ICC, and further for designing preservice teachers’ ICC training programs. The indicator will be a considerable value for the reference for EU countries which attach the importance to ICC policies in the context of globalization.
ReferencesAmerican Council on Education (ACE). (2016). At home in the world toolkit. https://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Pages/AHITW-Toolkit-Main.aspx
Association of International Educators. (2007). An international education policy: For U.S. leadership, competitiveness, and security. http://www.nafsa.org/public_policy.sec/united_states_international/toward_an_international/
Beelen, J., & Jones, E. (2015). Redefining internationalization at home. In A. Curaj, L. Matei, R. Pricopie, J. Salmi, & P. Scott (Eds.), The European Higher Education Area: Between critical reflections and future policies (pp. 59-72). doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20877-0
Brewer, E. (2004). From student mobility to internationalization at home. Paper presented at the conference on New Directions in International Education: Building Context, Connections and Knowledge, Beloit College, WI.
Chen, C.C. & Su, M. H. (2021). To Explore the Current Status of Internationalization of Domestic Higher Education Institutions through Cross-Platform Database Integration: A Support-Oriented Institutional Research. Psychological Testing, 68(1), 25-51. Rescource: https://www.airitilibrary.com/Publication/alDetailedMesh?docid=16094905-202103-202104070016-202104070016-25-51
Department for Education and Skills. (2004). Putting the world into world-class education. https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/1077-2004GIF-EN-01.pdf
Green, R. A. (2014). The Delphi technique in educational research. Sage Open, 4(2), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014529773
Griffith, R. L., Wolfeld, L., Armon, B. K., Rios, J., & Liu, O. L. (2016). Assessing intercultural competence in higher education: Existing research and future directions. ETS research report series, 2016(2), 1-44. https://doi.org/10.1002/ets2.12112
Kaynak, E., Bloom, J., & Leibold, M. (1994). Using the Delphi technique to predict future tourism potential. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 12(7), 18-29. https://doi.org/10.1108/02634509410065537
Keeney, S., Hasson, F., & McKenna, H. P. (2001). A critical review of the Delphi technique as a research methodology for nursing. International journal of nursing studies, 38(2), 195-200.
Meer, N. & Modood, T. (2012). How does Intercultureism contrast with Multicultureism?, Journal of Interculture Studies, 33(2), 175-196. https://doi.org/10.1080/07256868.2011.618266
Mestenhauser, J. A. (2003). Building bridges. International Educator, 12(3), 6-11.
Mitchell, V. W., & McGoldrick, P. J. (1994). The role of geodemographics in segmenting and targeting consumer markets: A Delphi study. European Journal of marketing, 28(5), 54-72.
OECD (2016). Global Competency for an Inclusive World. Paris, France: OECD Publishing.
OECD (2018). Preparing our youth for an inclusive and sustainable world (PISA Global Competence Framework). Paris, France: OECD Publishing.
Prendergast, G., & Marr, N. (1994). Towards a branchless banking society?. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 22(2), 18-26. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/09590559410054095/full/html
Su, M.H., Valcke, M., and Chou, P.I. (unpublished). A Scoping Review of Intercultural Competence in Preservice Teacher Education.
10. Teacher Education Research
Paper
Radical Imagination: Enacting Antiracist and Decolonial Praxis in Initial Teacher Education in England
Josephine Gabi, Anna Olsson Rost, Diane Warner, Uzma Asif
Manchester Metropolitan University, United Kingdom
Presenting Author: Gabi, Josephine;
Warner, Diane
Decolonising the curriculum is a complex, although not elusive phenomenon in initial teacher education (ITE). It is, however, to be actively and persistently pursued to enable anti-racist pedagogies and agendas to become embedded within student teachers’ schema. Calls across higher education for humanising and epistemically liberating pedagogies (Carmichael-Murphy & Gabi, 2021) challenge ITE educators to reconceptualise the ontological and epistemic foundations of their praxis. However, prevailing policies of standardisation and increasingly centralised curriculum demands and requirements in ITE, often sever links between culture and education for racially-minoritised student teachers who navigate complex and conflicting terrains to become teachers (Warner, 2022). Slow and limited progress in addressing hidden oppressions in the bureaucratic structures and curricular content has been identified as leading to racial harrassment, stereotyping and alienation of Black and Asian student teachers (Warner, 2022). This has raised accusations of a lack of commitment for decolonial and anti-racist practices that allow structural racism and narrowed policies to thrive (Bhopal & Pitkin, 2020). Indeed Domínguez (2019:47) argues that 'teacher education remains a deeply colonial endeavour’ and believes we are poised at a static zero point where the training of teachers requires specific and uncompromising intervention to avoid the damaging reification of colonial practices.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThis paper reflects on an ethnographic study that explored circumstances, contexts, and influential factors as experienced by university teacher educators engaged in anti-racist practice and explored the possibilities of turning decolonial thinking into praxis. These experiences were investigated through qualitative thematic analyses with nine collaborators at one university. Enriched by a critical analytic ethnography as a methodological orientation for decolonial inquiry, we are able to tell our stories from a ‘place of personal-political-pedagogical-philosophical crisis’ (Mackinlay, 2019: 203). Our approach is anchored in challenging disembodied practice-based research and undoing forms of coloniality in curricula and relational encounters, moving towards embodying transformative praxis (Thambinathan & Kinsella, 2021). This is underpinned by recognising and examining how teacher education is complicit in disembodied curricula and practices purported by White, Western epistemologies (Ohito, 2019). These serve to separate knowledge from experience, but embodiment acknowledges and is empowered by understanding ways in which experiences bring fuller dimensions to how we know and understand the world. We are also conscious of how our own entanglements with coloniality and other institutional structural factors that govern ITE curriculum delivery may complicate the research process. Thus, as we seek decolonial and dialogical reflexive spaces, we recognise the idea of ‘body-knowledge-space configuration’ that informs our research and praxis. We examine ourselves so that in attuning more finely to notions of race, racism and antiracism within teacher education, we can move from the colonial binary matrix that works at stratifying and segmenting us into perpetual victimhood of oppressor/oppressed, or victim/saviour to understanding how racism’s subtleties thread through the curricula of ITE and can be countered. We take cognisance of Denzin’s (1997:225) argument that 'a responsible, reflexive text announces its politics while it ceaselessly interrogates the realities it invokes while folding the teller’s story into the multivoiced history that is written’ where ‘no interpretation is privileged’. Consideration is given to power relations in social research situations, particularly as insider researchers and where our identities are complex constructs that we negotiate to serve epistemological purposes. This enquiry, therefore, acknowledges and makes visible the link between positionality, relational ethics, and decoloniality. This does not mean that we possess a decolonial universal truth or that there is one way to conceive and develop decolonial praxis in teacher education.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsOur findings suggest perceptible evidence of teacher educators’ frustrations yet deepening commitment to exposing ITE’s complicity in the reproduction and sustenance of coloniality of knowledge and relational inequities (Gabi, Olsson Rost, Warner, Asif, 2022). In the context of their specialist areas, they felt greater autonomy and ownership in attempting to reframe national requirements and reveal, with more accuracy, about inequity in education. They also disclosed how they felt teaching had become conceptualised and normalised as an ideologically ‘instrumentalised profession’, lacking emphasis on intersectional, antiracist and the critical consciousness necessary to circumvent damage-centred colonial narratives. A lack of incentive from ‘above’, as shown in current ITE curricular requirements, places the emphasis on the initiatives of individual educators or enlightened teacher education departments, to become crucial agents in developing decolonial praxis (Bhopal & Pitkin, 2020).
ReferencesBhopal, K., & Pitkin, C. (2020). ‘Same old story, just a different policy’: Race and policymaking in higher education in the UK. Race Ethnicity and Education, 23(4), 530–547. http://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2020.1718082
Carmichael-Murphy, P., & Gabi, J. (2021). (Re)imagining a dialogic curriculum: Humanising and epistemically liberating pedagogies in HE. Journal of Race and Pedagogy, 5(2), 1–18. https://soundideas.pugetsound.edu/rpj/vol5/iss2/4
Doharty, N., Madriaga, M. & Joseph-Salisbury, R. (2021). The university went to ‘decolonise’ and all they brought back was lousy diversity double-speak! Critical race counter-stories from faculty of colour in ‘decolonial’ times. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 53(3), 233-244, DOI: 10.1080/00131857.2020.1769601
Domínguez, M. (2019). Decolonial innovation in teacher development: praxis beyond the colonial zero-point. Journal of Education for Teaching, 45(1), 47–62, https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2019.1550605
Gabi, J., Olsson Rost, A., Warner, D., & Asif, U. (2022). Decolonial praxis: Teacher educators’ perspectives on tensions, barriers, and possibilities of anti-racist practice-based initial teacher education in England. Curriculum Journal. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1002/curj.174
Johnson, A., & Joseph-Salisbury, R. (2018). ‘Are You Supposed to Be in Here?’ Racial Microaggressions and Knowledge Production in Higher Education: Racism, Whiteness and Decolonising the Academy. In Dismantling Race in Higher Education : Racism, Whiteness and Decolonising the Academy (pp.143-160). Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60261-5_8
Warner, D. (2022) ‘Black and Minority Ethnic Student Teachers stories as empirical documents of hidden oppressions: using the personal to turn towards the structural’ in British Educational Research Journal. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3819
10. Teacher Education Research
Paper
‘I Do Not Need Professional Development in Multicultural Education’: Mapping Taiwanese Teachers’Imaginations
Shu-Ching Lee
National Chengchi University, Taiwan, Taiwan
Presenting Author: Lee, Shu-Ching
According to Curriculum Guidelines of 12-Year Basic Education, multicultural perspectives shall be embedded in Taiwan’s education, ranging from curriculum development, textbook selection, curriculum design, to the development of teacher profession. In this sense, teachers are supposed to improve their multicultural literacy in terms of teacher profession. Since the complexities of discursive formulation in Taiwan made the discourses and texts of multicultural education, both in policy and academia, appear inconsistent, discrepant, and vague. How do Taiwanese teachers understand multiculturalism? What is the implication of multicultural education as perceived by them?
Teachers play a crucial role in multicultural education. The Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) performed by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) assesses the learning environment and teacher performance in schools. Teaching in multicultural settings, as an aspect of assessment in the TALIS, emphasizes that increased international migration and the integration of the global economy and labour market catalysed the facilitation of globalized and multicultural societies. Such a phenomenon and its associated challenges called people’s attention to the formulation of countermeasures (in academia and policy making) to respond to an increasingly multicultural learning environment. A Teachers’ Guide to TALIS 2018 (Volume I) published by the OECD summarizes teachers’ preparation for multicultural education in one sentence—“Teachers need to be prepared to handle diversity in all of its forms in their classes.”
In the TALIS, teaching in multicultural settings is covered by three items, namely inclusion in formal education, the need for professional development, and a sense of preparedness. Inclusion in formal education refers to the percentage of lower secondary teachers who have participated in formal education or training with respect to multicultural or multilingual education. Taiwan ranked 14th out of 49 countries with a percentage of 43.3%. The need for professional development is determined by the percentage of lower secondary teachers with a need for professional development for teaching in a multicultural or multilingual setting; Taiwan ranked the 18th lowest out of 49 countries with a percentage of 12.4%. A sense of preparedness is defined by the percentage of lower secondary teachers who feel fully prepared to teach in a multicultural or multilingual setting. For the item of sense of preparedness, United Arab Emirates scored the highest (79.9%), whereas France scored the lowest (8.2%); Taiwan ranked 16th out of 49 countries with a percentage of 36.9%. A remarkable phenomenon was observed when comparing the statistical data for the three items of Taiwan: even though Taiwanese teachers exhibited unsatisfying performance in inclusion in formal education (43.3%) and sense of preparedness (36.9%), they lacked the need for professional development (12.4%).
In consideration of the aforementioned results, I was concerned that most teachers are confident with their understanding of multiculturalism and therefore do not feel the need for further learning on the topic. Teachers’ understanding of multiculturalism in their educational locale affects their implementation of multicultural education as well as correlates with the thorough practice of educational reform. Accordingly, the following research questions were proposed: (1) how do Taiwanese teachers understand multiculturalism? (2) what is the implication of multicultural education as perceived by them?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedBased on the concept proposed by McLaren (1994), Joe L. Kincheloe—author of Changing Multiculturalism—and Shirley R. Steinberg divided multiculturalism into five categories for further explanation. These five categories—conservative, liberal, pluralist, left-essentialist, and critical multiculturalism—are manifestations of different opinions, presumptions, attitudes, and actions toward differences. I perceived the implications of the five dimensions of multiculturalism on the basis of differences as five levels of understanding: (1) viewing differences from a negative point of view; (2) ignoring and expressing no interest in understanding differences; (3) identifying and celebrating differences; (4) identifying differences and regarding them as essential traits; and (5) viewing differences from a perspective without distinction and discrimination and endeavoring to change the unfair social structure. These five levels of understanding are not a hierarchy of knowledge but rather a classification for facilitating the understanding and analysis of how educators view and treat differences in teaching practices.
To understand teachers’ interpretations of the implications of multicultural education, I employed purposive and snowball sampling to select participants from educational settings. Through interviews and informal observation and conversation, in-depth research was performed to explore the recreation of multicultural education in the educational setting. Saturation in qualitative research was reached by adopting a research period from May 2013 to January 2017 in schools. Sufficient data were obtained through interviews with 11 elementary and junior high school teachers from five schools across different regions of Taiwan. Several schools located on the outskirts of cities had relatively high proportions of new immigrant offspring. New immigrant offspring were also enrolled in indigenous schools. All interviews were conducted at the school in which the interviewee worked to better determine the school’s context and climate. Through informal observation and conversations, students’ conditions were investigated in depth. The interviewees recruited were responsible for teaching different subjects and differed in ethnicity, gender, age, and seniority. Six of the teachers had less than 10 years of experience in teaching, whereas the remaining interviewees had over 10 years of experience. Each interview lasted 1–3 hours and was audio recorded after consent was obtained from the interviewee. Some of the teachers even underwent a second interview. In addition to their interpretation and practices of multicultural education, the teachers talked about their opinions on relevant policies implemented in school.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe results could be compared with TALIS statistics concerning two dimensions of Teaching in Multicultural Settings (i.e., teachers’ need for professional development and sense of preparedness). Many teachers, consistent with most people’s imagination, intuitively equated multiculturalism with ethnic culture. When asked “What do you think multicultural education is?” most teachers mentioned terms such as “respect,” “inclusion,” and “understanding.” However, further and deeper conversations revealed that many of them fell into the trap of conservative multiculturalism and viewed differences negatively. To them, nonmainstream differences were considered insufficient, inferior, or defective. Interpreting differences from the perspective of liberal multiculturalism, other teachers believed that respect for students with multicultural backgrounds is shown by treating them as mainstream students without special mention or labeling, regardless of their inadequate understanding of or interest in relevant cultures. The interviewees deemed new immigrants to lack cultural stimulation, which is why they felt the focus of multicultural education should be on immigrant mothers and their offspring instead of educating mainstream society to accept different cultures. Fractures and inconsistencies were also observed in the discourse of the teachers. Some stressed “respect” while advocating conservative multiculturalism/ monoculturalism, whereas others wavered between conservative and liberal multiculturalism; this highlighted the debate among various multicultural discourses. During the interviews, critical multiculturalism was occasionally adopted to identify differences. Furthermore, younger teachers transcended ethnic cultures to encompass gender issues as well as employed critical multiculturalism to observe and describe schools’ multicultural education practices and problems. A certain degree of discrepancy was observed between Taiwanese teachers’ perception of multicultural education and their relevant expertise. This explains why most of the teachers did not feel the need for professional development in multicultural education. This attitude among teachers is precisely the challenge in Taiwan’s education system, which must be overcome.
ReferencesBanks, J. A. (1991). Teaching multicultural literacy to teachers. Teaching Education, 4(1), 135-44.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1047621910040118
Banks, J. A. (1996). Multicultural education, transformative knowledge and action: Historical and contemporary perspectives. Teachers College Press.
Barrera, R. B. (1992). The cultural gap in literature-based literacy instruction. Education and Urban Society, 24(2), 227-43.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124592024002005
Bennett, S. V., Gunn, A. A., Gayle-Evans, G., Barrera, E. S., & Leung, C. B. (2018). Culturally responsive literacy practices in an early childhood community. Early Childhood Education Journal, 46(2), 241-249.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-017-0839-9
Bissonnette, J. D. (2016). The trouble with niceness: How a preference for pleasantry sabotages culturally responsive teacher preparation. Journal of Language and Literacy Education, 12(2), 9-33.
Callins, T. (2006). Culturally responsive literacy instruction. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(2), 62-65.
https://doi.org/10.1177/004005990603900211
Fisher, P. (2001). Teachers' views of the nature of multicultural literacy and implications for preservice teacher preparation. Journal of Reading Education, 27(1), 14-23.
Hornberger, N. H. (1990). Creating successful learning contexts for bilingual literacy. Teachers College Record, 92(2), 212-29.
Kim, S., & Slapac, A. (2015). Culturally responsive, transformative pedagogy in the transnational era: Critical perspectives. Educational Studies: A Journal of the American Educational Studies Association, 51(1), 17-28.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00131946.2014.983639
Kincheloe, J. L., & Steinberg, S. R. (1997). Changing multiculturalism. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Lai, C. H. (2009). Multicultural literacy cultivation and implementation of elementary school teachers [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Chung Yuan Christian University, Taiwan.
Lew, M. M., & Nelson, R. F. (2016). New teachers' challenges: How culturally responsive teaching, classroom management, & assessment literacy are intertwined. Multicultural Education, 23(3-4), 7-14.
Minami, M., & Kennedy, B. P. (1991). Language issues in literacy and bilingual/multicultural education. Harvard Educational Review Press.
Ministry of Education (Taiwan). (2020, June 1). Statistical Indicators: 2019 Education Statistical Indicators.
https://english.moe.gov.tw/cp-86-18943-e698b-1.html
Murray, D. E. (1992). Diversity as resource: Redefining cultural literacy. TESOL.
Nam, R. (2016). Culturally responsive literacy through student narratives. English in Texas, 46(2), 30-34.
OECD. (2019). A teachers’ guide to TALIS 2018 (Volume I). https://www.oecd.org/education/talis/TALIS-Teachers-Guide-to-TALIS-2018-Vol-I_ENG.pdf
Padilla, R. V. (1980). Theory in bilingual education: Ethnoperspectives in Bilingual Education Research, Volume II. Bilingual Review Press.
Tsai, C. C. (2006). The study of preservice teachers’ multicultural literacy：Development of measurement scale and the current situation analysis [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Tzu Chi University, Taiwan.
Wang, Y. H. (2007). Multicultural literacy instrumentation: A review and prospect. Journal of Educational Research and Development, 3(4), 149-180.
|
