01.Professional Learning and Development
Paper
Cooperative Learning as a Theory and Method for School leaders to Support Teachers` Professional Development
Beathe Liebech-Lien
NTNU, Norway
Presenting Author: Liebech-Lien, Beathe
In education today, increased attention is paid to how to develop the competencies students need for their future social and professional lives. The complex challenges of the 21st century have resulted in a worldwide call to teach students key competencies, such as critical thinking, communication, collaboration and creativity. Various frameworks have been developed to inform curriculum policies across the world. Consequently, increasing countries have reviewed their curricula considering 21st-century skills (Ananiadiou & Claro, 2009). Hence, there is a need to develop innovative learning environments in schools that support the development of 21st-century skills and how to lead and design the development of these skills (OECD, 2013).
School leaders play an important role in teachers' professional development. Administrators shape productive learning environments that support teachers' learning, teaching and influencing students' learning (Darling-Hammond et al., 2022). The effective professional development of school leaders has been found to support and transform school leaders' practice. Important characteristics of effective professional development for school leaders include authentic, active learning experiences that apply learning in practice; a focus on developing instruction; people and how to create a collaborative organisation. Other highlights include feedback and room for reflection and professional development structured to create a professional learning community (Darling-Hammond et al., 2007). This paper presents findings from a research and development programme exploring the ways in which cooperative learning (CL) as a theory and method can support school leaders' learning and practice.
Cooperative learning is a pedagogical model with a long history and extensive research base demonstrating its benefits for students' academic and social learning (Kyndt et al., 2013). It has been proposed as a powerful tool that teachers can use to develop the competencies students need for their future (Johnson & Johnson, 2014). The foundation of CL is learning through collaboration combined with learning to collaborate and can be described as the instructional use of small groups whose members work together to maximise everyone's learning (Slavin, 2015). The theory and method are based on five research-validated elements that mediate effective collaboration (Johnson & Johnson, 2002).
As a prerequisite for supporting students’ learning through collaboration and developing the competencies they need for their future, teachers, themselves, should experience the benefits of collaboration as learners. According to recent research, CL is also a promising tool for teachers' professional development; it supports their collaboration, cultivates teacher teams and enables them to become communities of practice (Liebech-Lien, 2021). Therefore, cooperative learning can be a powerful tool that school leaders can use to facilitate teachers' professional development (PD). Limited research has been conducted on how school leaders can use CL as a theory and method to support teachers' professional learning. As it is the school leader's responsibility to oversee and facilitate the learning and development of teachers and students, it is vital to explore how to support school leaders to develop good structures for collaboration that will benefit teachers' and students' learning. Accordingly, that was the objective of this research and development project.
This paper aims to explore the following research question:
In what ways can cooperative learning as a theory and method in school leaders’ professional development programme support their learning and practice?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe data reported in this paper are based on a PD programme for all school leaders in primary and lower secondary schools in a municipality in Norway. The PD programme focused on CL as a theory and method to support school leaders to facilitate learning processes for teachers within their schools and to build professional learning communities. The aim of the project was to support school leaders' learning and implementation of new curriculum reform that is influenced by 21st-century skills and accentuate collaboration for teachers and students (Utdanningsdirektoratet, 2020).
The aim of the PD programme was twofold: 1) To provide school leaders with knowledge and first-hand experience with the pedagogical model and how it can be used as a theory and method to support teachers’ professional development and students' learning and 2) To give school leaders first-hand experience with CL as learners, themselves, to support a common focus for all the school leaders in the municipality.
The author had the role of a researcher in her own organisation and developed and facilitated the PD programme in close collaboration with the municipality's leadership and school leaders. The PD programme comprised a two-day workshop in CL and monthly follow-up sessions during the 2021/2022 school year with a focus on CL and teachers' learning and with school leaders developing a proactive action research project to use CL to facilitate learning processes within their school. In proactive action research, participants act first and then study the effects (Schmuck, 2006). Altogether, 52 school leaders participated. During the workshop and in the follow-up session, school leaders worked in small groups.
Data collected during the project were reflection logs from school leaders, participant observations, documents and material from the PD project. The main data from the study were reflection notes written after the two-day workshop and reflection notes written after the PD programme ended. Qualitative content analysis was used to enquire into the main data (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). Preliminary analyses and findings from the research project and which ways CL as a theory and method had supported school leaders' learning were presented and reflected on with the municipality leadership, who also participated in the learning sessions. This discussion provided feedback and reflection and confirmed that the findings resonated with their experiences.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe analysis of the data identified four important themes in which ways CL as a theory and method as well as how the school leader's PD programme supported their learning and practice.
The first theme illustrates how the CL workshop provided first-hand experience with the theory and method and how this motivated school leaders to further use the method in their practice. Experiencing CL as learners, themselves, was deemed important, as it motivated school leaders to experience how the method really worked.
The second theme revealed that CL provided the school leaders with an extended toolbox for planning and facilitating learning processes within their schools. The findings clearly show that the PD programme gave school leaders new ways to structure collaborative learning processes in their schools. In particular, they had tried direct CL methods in the workshop such as the "jigsaw puzzle" (Aronson, 2021) and meeting in the middle (Kagan & Stenlev, 2006), both considered methods they could easily apply in their own practice.
The third theme demonstrated that proactive action research was a vital component that supported school leaders in trying CL in their leadership practice in their schools. The proactive action research also enabled school leaders to plan, attempt, obtain support and feedback and reflect on their experiences together in the small school leaders' groups in the PD programme along the way.
Last, CL was found to cultivate a community of practice within the small school leader groups during the PD programme. The small school leader groups to which they were assigned during the PD programme supported their learning and fostered collegiality among them. The development of communities of practice can be a powerful source of learning for the individual and organisations (Wenger et al., 2002).
ReferencesAnaniadou, K., & Claro, M. (2009). 21st century skills and competences for new millennium learners in OECD Countries, OECD Education Working Papers, 41, OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/218525261154
Aronson, E. (2021). The jigsaw classroom: A personal odyssey into a systemic national problem. In Pioneering Perspectives in Cooperative Learning (pp. 146–164). Routledge.
Darling-Hammond, L., LaPointe, M., Meyerson, D., Orr, M. T., & Cohen, C. (2007). Preparing school leaders for a changing world: Lessons from exemplary leadership development programs. School Leadership Study. Final Report. Stanford Educational Leadership Institute.
Darling-Hammond, L., Wechsler, M. E., Levin, S., & Tozer, S. (2022). Developing effective principals: What kind of learning matters? Learning Policy Institute.
Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277–1288. https://doi:10.1177/1049732305276687
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2002). Learning together and alone: Overview and meta‐analysis. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 22(1), 95–105. https:// doi:10.1080/0218879020220110
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2014). Cooperative learning in the 21st Century. [Aprendizaje cooperativo en el siglo XXI]. Anales De Psicología/Annals of Psychology, 30(3), 841–851. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.30.3.201241
Kagan, S., & Stenlev, J. (2006). Undervisning med samarbejdsstrukturer. Cooperative Learning. Alinea.
Kyndt, E., Raes, E., Lismont, B., Timmers, F., Cascallar, E., & Dochy, F. (2013). A meta-analysis of the effects of face-to-face cooperative learning. Do recent studies falsify or verify earlier findings? Educational Research Review, 10, 133–149. https://doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2013.02.002
Liebech-Lien, B. (2021). Teacher teams – a support or a barrier to practising cooperative learning? Teaching and Teacher Education, 106, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103453
OECD. (2013). Leadership for 21st century learning. Educational research and innovation. OECD Publishing. https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264205506-en
Schmuck, R. A. (2006). Practical action research for change (2nd ed.).Corwin Press.
Slavin, R. E. (2015). Cooperative learning in elementary schools. Education 3–13, 43(1), 5–14. https://doi:10.1080/03004279.2015.963370
Utdanningsdirektoratet. (2020). Core curriculum – values and principles for primary and secondary education. https://www.udir.no/lk20/overordnet-del/prinsipper-for-laring-utvikling-og-danning/kompetanse-i-fagene/?lang=eng
Wenger, E., McDermott, R. A., & Snyder, W. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice: A guide to managing knowledge. Harvard Business Press.
01.Professional Learning and Development
Paper
The Mediating Effects of Perceived Skills on Motivation and Perceived Changes in Leadership Styles in an Erasmus+ Leadership Development Program
Zhao Cheng, Chang Zhu, Ngoc Bich Khuyen Dinh
Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium
Presenting Author: Cheng, Zhao
Research questions:
1. Does motivation has a significant positive effect on perceived skills?
2. Does motivation has a significant positive effect on the perceived changes in leadership styles?
3. Does perceived skills has a significant positive effect on the perceived changes in leadership styles?
4. Does perceived skills positively mediate the relationship between motivation and perceived changes in leadership styles?
Objective: Our objective is to examine how the participants perceive the skills they learned via their motivation and their perceived changes in leadership styles.
Conceptual framework and hypothesis：
Self-determination theory (SDT) is seen as a sound theoretical framework in this study because it examines conditions that elicit and sustain motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). According to SDT, satisfying psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—is essential for individuals’ psychological growth and well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Leaders who are motivated are likely to see activities as their own rewards and opportunities for learning and growth (Ryan & Deci, 2017).
As adult learners, leaders’ motivation for joining a training course varies from uplifting their knowledge and skills to social interaction (Kao et al. 2011; Loizzo et al. 2017). Understanding their motivation to participate in the learning and how this relates to learning outcomes have been highlighted in the literature over the past decade (Douglas et al. 2020). The findings of Dinh et al. (2022) endorsed the view that motivation has effects on the learning outcomes of the leadership program. Accordingly, we hypothesize;
Hypothesis 1. Motivation has a significant positive effect on perceived skills.
Autonomously motivated leaders understand the value of the work they do. A major characteristic of motivation is the alignment of behaviours with core values so that these behaviours are seen as emanating from oneself (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Related research using SDT found school leaders’ autonomous motivation was linked with reports of their trans-formational leadership (Trépanier et al., 2012). In what follows, we use SDT’s unique perspective of learning motivations to formulate our hypotheses on leadership styles’ change. We describe the most likely pathways between participants’ motivations and leadership styles’ change, which constitutes the hypothesized model.
Hypothesis 2 Motivation has a significant positive effect on perceived changes in leadership styles.
Leadership has been related to a person’s skills, and abilities to get people moving in a direction (Kets De Vries & Florent-Treacy, 2002). The very core of specialized leadership training focuses on areas of improving leaders' knowledge, skills, and attitudes; and, training and education on leadership styles (Bass, 1990). Leadership course participants are motivated to participate and learn from courses, and to use the knowledge and skills learned in their leadership practice, especially when they see the positive transfer from the course to the workplace will be for the benefit for them (Bass, 2008). Accordingly, we hypothesize;
Hypothesis 3. Perceived skills has a significant positive effect on perceived changes in leadership styles
The mediating role of perceived skills
To reiterate, we examine the motivation has effects on the learning outcomes of the leadership program (Dinh et al., 2022). Leadership course participants are motivated to use the knowledge, skills, and abilities learned for use in their leadership practice (Bass, 2008). Characteristics of motivation are the alignment of change of behaviours, so these behaviours are seen as emanating from oneself (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Related research found leaders’ autonomous motivation was linked with reports of their transformational leadership (Trépanier et al., 2012). Thus, accordingly, we hypothesize:
Hypothesis 4. Perceived skills positively mediate the relationship between motivation and perceived changes in leadership styles
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedMethodology
Drawing on survey data of 748 participants directly associated with academic leadership development program during 2021–2022. The research is undertaken linked to a capacity-building project in higher education funded by European Union’s Erasmus + program. The leadership training course aimed at capacity building on university governance and leadership for leaders and staff working in academic institutions. By using community-based and practice-based learning approaches, the programs were designed for academic leaders and staff working in academic institutions to advance their knowledge and skills on academic leadership. The conceptual model was tested with structural equation modeling (SEM) using Mplus program (v8). Scales were adapted from previous research to measure motivation to participate the leadership development program (with its four-dimensions including practical enhancement, occupational promotion, external expectations and social contact) ( Kao et al. 2011) and perceived skills (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick 2006) after the leadership development program, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ ) (Avolio and Bass, 2004) includes transformational style (Idealized influence, Inspirational motivation, Intellectual stimulation, and Individualized consideration) and Transactional leadership style (contingent reward and management by exception-active, reflective–formative second order assessments were specifically applied to measure the multi-dimensional nature of motivation and perceived changes in leadership styles, respectively. The bootstrap approach was used to identify all the significant mediating paths with the 95% confidence interval estimates excluding zero (MacKinnon et al., 2004).
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsFindings
Mplus estimations revealed that participants motivation positively influences perceived changes in transformational leadership styles and transactional leadership, besides motivation positively influences the perceived skills, the perceived skills positively influences perceived changes in transformational leadership styles and transactional leadership. Interestingly, the relationship between motivation and perceived changes in transformational leadership is also positively mediated by the perceived skills.
ReferencesAvolio, B. J., & Bass, B. M. (2004). Multifactor leadership questionnaire. Mind Garden.
Bass, B. M. & Avolio, B. J. (1990). The implications of transactional and transformational leadership for the individual, team, and organizational development. Research in Organizational Change and Development (Vol. 4, s. 231-272).
Bass, B. M., & Bass, R. (2008). Handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and application. Free Press.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” in goal pursuits: Human needs and the self- determination determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268.
Dinh, N. B. K., Zhu, C., Nguyet, D. A., & Qi, Z. (2022). Uncovering factors predicting the effectiveness of MOOC-based academic leadership training. Journal of Computers in Education, September. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-022-00241-z
Douglas, K., Merzdorf, H. E., Hicks, N., Sarfaz, M. I., & Bermel, P. (2020). Challenges to assessing motivation in MOOC learners: An application of an argument-based approach. Computer & Education, 150, 103829.
Kao, C. P., Wu, Y., & Tsai, C. (2011). Elementary school teachers’ motivation toward web-based pro- fessional development, and the relationship with Internet self-efficacy and belief about web-based learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(2011), 406–415.
Kets De Vries, M., & Florent-Treacy, E. (2002). Global leadership from A to Z: Creating high commitment organizations. Organizational Dynamics, 30(4), 295–309.
Kirkpatrick, L., & Kirkpatrick, J. (2006). Evaluating training programmes: the four levels. San Fransisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Li, K., & Griffin, M. A. (2022). Prevention-focused leadership and well-being during the pandemic: mediation by role clarity and workload. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 43(6), 890–908. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-10-2021-0455
Loizzo, J., Ertmer, P., Watson, W., & Watson, & Lee, S. (2017). Adults as self-directed and determined to set and achieve personal learning goals in MOOCs: Learners’ perceptions of MOOC motivation, success, and completion. Online Learning, 21, 2.
MacKinnon, D.P., Lockwood, C.M. and Williams, J. (2004), “Confidence limits for the indirect effect: distribution of the product and resampling methods”, Multivariate Behavioral Research, Vol. 39 No. 1, pp. 99-128
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. New York, NY: Guilford.
Trépanier, S. G., Fernet, C., & Austin, S. (2012). Social and motivational antecedents of perceptions of transformational leadership: A self-determination theory perspective. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 44(4), 272-277.
01.Professional Learning and Development
Paper
Helping School Principals Support their Teachers in the Changing World of Students’Assessment
Sylvie Fontaine, Lorraine Savoie-Zajc, Alain Cadieux, Jennifer Smith
Université du Québec en Outaouais, Canada
Presenting Author: Fontaine, Sylvie
Quebec's education system, like many other around the world, is in a state of continuous changes. Since the beginning of the 1960s, Quebec teachers have had to adjust their teaching practices according to the changes made to educational programs and policies (Laurier, 2014). Indeed, starting with a list of topics to be presented to students (1970-1980), the curriculum evolved into programs by objectives (1980-2000) followed by the current competency-based programs (2001- ). As a result to these changes, and in parallel with it, modifications were brought to the initial assessment policy (MEQ, 1981) in order to link assessment practices to the newest competency-based program (MEQ, 2003). Consequently, these changes in the assessment policy required adjustments of teacher practices which in light of those continuous changes in the ways to assess and report student learning, are feeling insufficiently prepared (Fontaine, Kane, Duquette et Savoie-Zajc, 2011 ; Kane, Jones, Rottmann et Conner, 2010).
School principals play an important role in supporting teachers in most aspects of their job, including the assessment of their students. However, school principals have also had to adjust their practices. Indeed, for more than a decade, school organizations have had to comply with an accountability process imposed by the Quebec Ministry of Education (Lessard, 2014). This accountability process led to the creation of partnership agreements between the Ministry and school boards in regards to the need to prioritize students’ perseverance and success. Embedded in this accountability process, the publication of a document called I care about school! All together for student success (2009), provided a specific orientation for the changes to be made within assessment practices. It also established school targets and monitoring process for student success. For the Quebec school system, the targeted goal is to raise the graduation, or qualifications rate, to 80 per cent for students under the age of 20 by 2020 (MELS, 2009). Therefore, we are witnessing a process of regulation of the education system within which inferences are made on the basis of how each school is performing (Blais, 2004). This regulation process requires the use of internal and external quantitative indicators (Lessard and Meirieu, 2004). Students’ assessment thus becomes essential because it represents a quantitative indicator of the school’s internal performance. Henceforth, it is necessary for school principals to understand the student assessment process and to become more involved in supporting their staff within that process.
Now, if teachers, at the forefront of the assessment process, don’t feel sufficiently competent (Fontaine, Savoie-Zajc et Cadieux, 2013; Kane et al., 2010), it is highly possible that school principals’ perception of self-competency is even more unstable. Indeed, in most cases, school principals have had an assessment course during initial teacher training, but for most of them, it has been a long time ago and considerable changes have occurred since then. Nonetheless, they still need to support their teachers in the assessment process in order to comply to the accountability process they are engaged with (MELS, 2008).
Hoping to contribute to school principals professional development in this specific area, we conducted a research with the following objectives: (1) identify the needs of school principals in developing their professional competencies to better support teachers in assessment; (2) familiarize school principals with best practices in student assessment; (3) co-develop with school principals action plans to support the assessment process within their school and (4) describe the development of school principals’ professional competencies in supporting assessment practices of teachers. For the purpose of this presentation, results from objectives 2 and 4 will be presented.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedWe adopted an action research methodological framework within which two learning communities (LC) (Dionne, Lemyre et Savoie-Zajc, 2010) composed of school principals (LC-1: eight primary school principals and LC-2: eight secondary school principals) and three researchers were formed. Their participation was entirely voluntary. School board administrators from four different school boards facilitated enrolment in the research by suggesting school principals that 1) were interested in participating, and 2) could be potential leaders amongst their colleague principals. The learning communities were formed in 2017 and five half-day group meetings and four two-hours individual meetings were held over two years.
This methodology was chosen because action research starts from practitioners’ concerns, it is situated within their professional practice context, it aims to improve their practices, it encourages a flexible approach by experiencing their day-to-day reality of practice, it is part of a continuous learning process and finally, it aims to validate solutions for identified concerns through a rigorous process of justification (Dolbec and Clément, 2004; Savoie-Zajc, 2001).
A three-step approach was chosen: (1) group meetings shared theoretical and practical knowledge related to teachers’ support in the field of assessment practices, (2) implementation of some activities by each school principal in order to support teachers in the context of an assessment issue, and (3) reflexive feedback (group and individual meetings) in order to discuss various aspects of the implemented support activities, as well as strengths and weaknesses.
Data was collected through participants’ logbooks and recorded and written meeting notes (group and individual). Each participant’s logbook was used to keep written records of the implemented activities and the adjustments made, participant’s reflections in regards to the activities as well as the lessons they learned from the experiences. Meeting notes provided helpful links over time and supported readily dialogues between participants and researchers during both group and individual meetings. Growth and evolvement of school principals’ competencies to support teachers in assessment practices made throughout the research was thus recorded. It allowed us to write individual trajectories for four of the participants.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsTraining of school personnel is inevitable in light of the continuous changes in their professional educational context. However, it must be adapted to their specific needs as well as their professional reality in order for them to even consider making the necessary adjustments to their practices (Biémar, 2012). Data collected in this research shows that the spaces created by the learning community groups and individual meetings over a two-year period allowed participants to step back from their practices and exchange with colleagues from different backgrounds (school context, grade level, etc.) with regards to supporting teachers in various issues related to students’ assessment practices (overassessment, breach of confidentiality for Ministry exams, allocation of the mark 0 to an exam if the student is absent, etc.).
Trajectories from two of the participants illustrate the growth in school principals’ competencies in supporting teachers. For example, one of the school principals mentioned changing ways to support teachers, from an authoritarian approach to a more collaborative one, involving listening to teachers’ needs instead of imposing her ways of doing things. The trajectories also provide evidence of school principals’ increased knowledge of a wider variety of issues regarding students’ assessment. For example, another participant indicated that she was more confident to tackle a variety of assessment issues (such as student feedback, analysis of exams’ results, etc.) with teachers individually or in groups.
For the purpose of this presentation, the researchers will report on the needs expressed by the school principals (objective 1) and on the development of school principals’ competencies (objective 4) over the past years through individualized trajectories based on the data collected from logbooks and meetings notes.
ReferencesBiémar, S. (2012). Accompagner un groupe d’enseignants dans une école : une grille de compétences. Dans E. Charlier et S. Biémar, Accompagner un agir professionnel (p. 19-33). Bruxelles : De Boeck.
Blais, J.-G. (2004). L’obligation de résultats à la lumière de l’interaction entre le quantitative et le social. Dans C. Lessard et P. Meirieu, L’obligation de résultats en éducation (p. 123-144). St-Nicolas : PUL.
Dionne, L., Lemyre, F., & Savoie-Zajc, L. (2010). Vers une définition englobante de la communauté d’apprentissage comme dispositif de développement professionnel. Revue des Sciences de l'Éducation, 36(1), 25-43.
Dolbec, A. & Clément, J. (2004). La recherche-action. Dans T. Karsenti & L. Savoie-Zajc. La recherche en éducation : ses étapes, ses approches (p. 181-208). Sherbrooke: CRP.
Fontaine, S., Kane, R., Duquette, O., & Savoie-Zajc, L. (2011). New teachers’ career intentions: Factors influencing new teachers’ decisions to stay or to leave the profession. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 57(4), 379-408.
Fontaine, S., Savoie-Zajc, L. & Cadieux, A. (2013). L’impact des CAP sur le développement de la compétence des enseignants en évaluation des apprentissages. Éducation et francophonie, 41(2), 10–34.
Kane, R., Jones, A., Rottmann, J., & Conner, M. (2010). The evaluation of the new teacher induction program. Phase Three Final Report to the Ontario Ministry of Education.
Laurier, M. (2014). La politique québécoise d’évaluation des apprentissages et les pratiques évaluatives, Éducation et Francophonie, 42, 31-49.
Lessard, C. (2004). L’obligation de résultats en éducation: de quoi s’agit-il? Le contexte québécois d’une demande sociale, une rhétorique du changement et une extension de la recherche. LESSARD, C.; MEIRIEU, P. L’obligation de résultats en éducation. Montréal.
Lessard, C. (2014). La montée en puissance de l’évaluation, instrument d’action politique au Canada et au Québec. Enjeux sociopolitiques et socioéducatifs. Dans J. Morrissette et M.-F. Legendre, Enseigner et évaluer. Regards sur les enjeux éthiques et sociopolitiques (p.143-164). Québec, Québec : PUL.
Ministère de l’éducation du Québec (2003). Programme de formation de l’école québécoise : enseignement secondaire, premier cycle. Québec : Gouvernement du Québec.
Ministère de l’Éducation du Québec (1981). Politique générale d’évaluation pédagogique (secteur du préscolaire, du primaire et du secondaire). Québec : Gouvernement du Québec.
Ministère de l’éducation, des loisirs et du sport (2008). Pas à pas, réussir le bilan des apprentissages. Guide à l'intention des écoles. Québec : Gouvernement du Québec.
Savoie-Zajc, L. (2001). La recherche-action en éducation: ses cadres épistémologiques, sa pertinence, ses limites. Nouvelles dynamiques de recherche en éducation, 15-49.
|
