31. LEd – Network on Language and Education
Paper
Mapping Meaning-Making: A Qualitative Study of Children's Early Literacy Engagement in Three Crèches in Luxembourg
Valérie Kemp
Université du Luxembourg, Luxembourg
Presenting Author: Kemp, Valérie
Literacy is generally understood as people’s ways of creating or interpreting meaningful signs, such as printed text or images. While the cognitive view on literacy focuses on literacy skills and abilities, the sociocultural approach addresses literacies as practices of individuals or communities (Kelly, 2010). A similar dichotomy exists regarding literacy in early childhood. In this case, emergent literacy describes young children’s reading and writing behaviours that precede so-called conventional literacy (Sulzby & Teale, 1996). Studies in this area, therefore, often aim to measure young children’s literacy skills and evaluate their school readiness.
In contrast, early literacy addresses young children’s literacy practices as part of a continuous learning process and values their various multimodal ways of engaging with print (Kress, 1997). This child-centred perspective highlights the social aspect of literacy and considers children as active co-constructers of meaning. It allows us to move beyond a focus on formal aspects of literacy learning, such as letter knowledge or phonological awareness, as it foregrounds sociocultural dimensions of literacy, like the function, the associated norms and values, or the personal meanings of books. Many studies have demonstrated the positive impact of children’s early engagement with books and other literacy tools on later language and literacy development (Hall, Larson, & Marsh, 2003; Neuman & Dickinson, 2001) and, consequently, academic success (Dickinson, Griffith, Golinkoff, & Hirsh-Pasek, 2012). By contrast, qualitative studies on young children’s literacy practices and related meaning-making processes are rare (Worthington & van Oers, 2017). Hence, the need for more precise descriptions of early literacy engagement remains. While the term ‘meaning-making’ is frequently used in sociocultural research on early literacy, researchers fail to define it precisely. In this paper, I aim to account for this research gap by ‘mapping’ the meaning-making of young children in the context of their engagement with books. In line with researchers who have studied meaning-making in visual arts or science education (Fredriksen, 2011; Siry & Gorges, 2019), I suggest that meaning-making requires children to connect their past and present experiences meaningfully. Furthermore, making meaning in the context of early reading entails an engagement with the material, pragmatic and linguistic aspects of books.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThis paper is part of my PhD research, which I conduct in the context of a larger his mixed-method project that explores multiliteracies and collaboration with parents in Early Childhood Education in Luxembourg. After receiving ethical approval, I conducted qualitative fieldwork (between September 2020 and June 2021) in three different ECE settings in Luxembourg. The multilingual and multicultural context of Luxembourg, where more than two-thirds of preschool children do not speak the national language Luxembourgish at home (MENJE & SCRIPT, 2022) offers fascinating opportunities to study young children and their diverse multimodal ways of communicating. I observed the early literacy practices of nine focus children (three per crèche) and collected data through video recordings, fieldnotes, thick descriptions and informal interviews with the educators. I selected 2 hours and 12 minutes of video recording in which children engaged in early reading for a more in-depth analysis. I coded children’s multimodal ways of expressing meaning (e.g., non-verbal modes such as gestures or facial expressions or verbal modes such as words or sentences in different languages) and the social and cognitive literacy-related aspects with which children engaged.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsFor this paper, I focus on examples from three of my nine focus children to illustrate the richness and diversity of children’s meaning-making in early reading situations. The findings highlight two dimensions of children’s meaning-making: cognitive and social. From a cognitive perspective, children’s meaning-making first entails engaging in different ways with different elements of the book (e.g., details of the pictures and material features such as flaps or story characters). While some children engage with these elements in an isolated way, for example, by pointing at the pictures, others build connections between different elements of the book they are reading. The social dimension is related to an engagement with children’s previous experiences from home or daycare. Children connect their current and previous experiences, for example by relating book characters to family members or TV shows. Furthermore, they engage with literacy practices in which they participate in their everyday lives at daycare centres or homes. By creatively reproducing practices such as group read-aloud or bedtime storytelling, children demonstrate learning about the sociocultural meaning of literacy in their respective communities. The consideration of children’s multimodal ways of expressing meaning has shown that children’s use of verbal modes increases with age and in relation to the social context. Children who use their whole semiotic repertoire seem to engage more meaningfully with literacy. These findings confirm that language and literacy development go hand in hand and that practitioners and parents need to foster both to support learning better. Finally, my conceptualisation of early literacy meaning-making potentially advances academic knowledge and opens opportunities to be applied in various sociocultural contexts. For instance, my conceptualization could help practitioners in ECE to understand early literacy as a holistic learning process.
ReferencesDickinson, D. K., Griffith, J. A., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2012). How Reading Books Fosters Language Development around the World. Child Development Research, 2012, 1-15. doi:10.1155/2012/602807
Fredriksen, B. C. (2011). When past and new experiences meet. FORMakademisk, 4(1), 65-80.
Hall, N., Larson, J., & Marsh, J. (2003). Handbook of Early Childhood Literacy. London: SAGE.
Kelly, C. (2010). Literacy as a social and cultural activity in homes and schools In Hidden Worlds. Stoke an Trent: Trentham Books
Kress, G. (1997). Before Writing - Rethinking the Paths to Literacy. London: Routledge.
MENJE, & SCRIPT. (2022). L’enseignement au Luxembourg en chiffres.
Neuman, S. B., & Dickinson, D. K. (2001). Handbook of Early Literacy Research. New York.
Siry, C., & Gorges, A. (2019). Young students’ diverse resources for meaning making in science: learning from multilingual contexts. International Journal of Science Education, 1-23. doi:10.1080/09500693.2019.1625495
Sulzby, E., & Teale, W. H. (1996). Emergent Literacy. In P. D. Pearson, R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, & P. Mosenthal (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research (pp. 121 - 151). New York: Longman.
31. LEd – Network on Language and Education
Paper
Is it Just Reading Difficulties? An Overview of Reading and Social-emotional Difficulties of First Graders in Germany, Switzerland and Austria
Katharina Prinz1, Daniela Ender1,2, Susanne Seifert1,2, Barbara Gasteiger-Klicpera1,2, Alfred Schabmann3, Barbara M. Schmidt3
1University of Graz, Austria; 2Research Center for Inclusive Education, Austria; 3University of Cologne, Germany
Presenting Author: Prinz, Katharina;
Ender, Daniela
A considerable number of students in primary schools show reading difficulties (e.g., 15.55% of 3rd and 4th grade students in a representative sample of 1633 German speaking children; Moll et al., 2014). This developmental learning disorder is characterized by profound difficulties regarding reading related skills (e.g., reading comprehension, reading fluency and reading accuracy) (WHO, 2022). Moreover, these difficulties tend to persist and may have a negative impact on almost all school subjects as well as the wellbeing of the individuals (Klicpera et al., 1993).
In addition to reading difficulties, often comorbid internal as well as external socio-emotional disorders occur (Gasteiger-Klicpera et al., 2006; Hendren et al. 2018). According to Schulte-Körne (2010), 40-60% of the children with reading difficulties show comorbid deficits in social-emotional skills. A high prevalence is found between specific learning disorders and depression, ADHD, conduct disorder and anxiety disorder (Visser et al., 2020). Moreover, starting from the other perspective, students with social-emotional difficulties often develop reading difficulties (Turunen et al., 2018). This leads to an unfavourable prognosis for the academic development of these children. Yet, it is unresolved which student factors moderate the relationship between reading difficulties and social-emotional deficits. It is possible that social-emotional difficulties reinforce reading difficulties and vice versa (Gasteiger-Klicpera et al., 2006; Hurry et al., 2018). Due to this, early twofold interventions, addressing both reading and social-emotional difficulties (e.g., Boyes et al., 2020) seem to be of utmost importance. If only one of the two difficulties is addressed, the others remain and persist without intervention throughout life.
This paper presents a screening of reading and social-emotional skills of approximately 1200 primary graders in Germany, Switzerland and Austria. Regarding reading skills, lexical decoding was assessed and both the students and their teachers provided information on their social-emotional skills (internalizing and externalizing characteristics). To identify those difficulties at an early stage is highly relevant in order to be able to implement appropriate intervention strategies. The collected data offer a current overview of the comorbidity rates of three German-speaking European countries and reveals the potential need for twofold interventions addressing both the reading and social-emotional difficulties.
The screening is part of the project Lubo-LRS, a cooperation project of University of Cologne, University of Teacher Education in Special Needs Zurich and University of Graz; funded by Marga and Walter Boll foundation. The project aims to develop and evaluate a preventive training program fostering social-emotional skills of children with reading difficulties. By focusing on social-emotional challenges that may accompany reading difficulties, students may be strengthened in this regard and psychosocial consequences may be intercepted from the beginning (University of Cologne, 2022). Therefore, the screening (summer 2022) identified students with reading difficulties (the reading skills being one and a half standard deviation below the mean) for the intervention phase (winter 2022 - summer 2023).
In this paper, the following research questions are addressed:
- What is the proportion of first graders with reading and additional social-emotional difficulties in Germany, Switzerland and Austria?
- To what extent are gender differences evident?
- What social-emotional difficulties are particularly prevalent in this sample?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedEach participating country acquired about 400 first graders (Germany, Switzerland and Austria; n total = 1200), who participated in the screening of reading and social-emotional skills in early summer 2022. Since language deficits are considered an exclusion criterion for reading difficulties (WHO, 2022), only schools with a majority of students with German as their first language were considered.
Decoding skills were measured on word level using the WLLP-R (Schneider et al., 2009). This standardized screening is a speed-reading test which can be implemented in a group setting. Further, the social-emotional skills were assessed via students’ and teachers’ questionnaires (adapted and revised from Gasteiger-Klicpera et al., 2006). The students’ form consisted of six subscales: victimization of direct or indirect aggression (four items), prosocial behaviour of classmates towards oneself (five items), aggressive behaviour (direct or indirect) (four items), prosocial behaviour (four items), experience of loneliness (five items) and well-being (five items; adapted from WHO, 1998). Taking the possible reading difficulties of the students into account, the test instructor read the items aloud and the students marked the frequency of occurrence on a four-level Likert scale. The teachers’ form consisted of students’ demographic data and information regarding their reading skills (sex, age, extraordinary student status (AO-Status), first language, special educational needs (SEN), assessment of reading skills, support outside school, difficulties learning to read and write) and five subscales considering social-emotional skills: attention problems and hyperactivity (four items), disruptive and oppositional behaviour (five items), withdrawn and shy behaviour (five items), victimization (two items) and depression (four items; two adapted from Rossmann, 2014). The teachers marked the answer on a five-level Likert scale.
Based on norm data from the WLLP-R (Schneider et al., 2009), we identified students with a PR below 10 (one and a half standard deviations below the mean) as having reading difficulties. Further, we identified students with a PR below 5, which show particularly low reading skills. To determine the comorbidity of reading and social-emotional skills, we tested by frequencies and calculated correlations between reading and social-emotional skills in the group of students with reading difficulties. Besides, we will conduct structural equation modeling and multilevel modeling of reading skills and all scales of the social-emotional questionnaires.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThis paper presents the findings of a screening of first graders regarding reading and social-emotional skills. The number of students with reading difficulties is identified considering three German-speaking European countries (Germany, Switzerland and Austria). The results show, that differences in reading skills are already evident at the end of first grade and thus, confirm results from studies before (e.g., Klicpera et al., 1993). Students with reading difficulties particularly need support on an individual level to foster their reading skills.
In addition, reading difficulties are often accompanied by social-emotional difficulties, which have to be addressed as well. The analysis of the collected data on the comorbidity of reading and social-emotional difficulties will shed further light into this matter. Internalizing as well as externalizing social-emotional difficulties and gender differences are considered. We provide an indication which social-emotional difficulties are particularly common among first graders with reading difficulties. Further, we discuss similarities and differences between teacher and self-assessment of students’ social-emotional skills.
It can be concluded that specific disorders are often associated with reading difficulties and manifest themselves already at this early age. Reading trainings should take these findings into account in order to help students in the best possible way. The findings underline the importance of fostering students’ reading and social-emotional skills regarding twofold interventions.
ReferencesBoyes, M. E., Leitão, S., Claessen, M., Badcock, N. A., & Nayton, M. (2019). Correlates of externalising and internalising problems in children with dyslexia: An analysis of data from clinical casefiles. Australian Psychologist, 55, 62-72. https://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12409
Gasteiger-Klicpera, B., Klicpera, C., & Schabmann, A. (2006). Der Zusammenhang zwischen Lese-, Rechtschreib- und Verhaltensschwierigkeiten: Entwicklung vom Kindergarten bis zur vierten Grundschule. Kindheit und Entwicklung, 15(1), 55-67.
Hendren, R., Haft, S., Black, J., White, N., & Hoeft, F. (2018). Recognizing psychiatric comorbidity with reading disorders. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00101
Hurry, J., Flouri, E., & Sylva, K. (2018). Literacy difficulties and emotional and behavior disorders: causes and consequences. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 23, 259-279. https://doi.org/10.1080/10824669.2018.1482748
Moll, K., Kunze, S., Neuhoff, N., Bruder, J., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2014). Specific Learning Disorder: Prevalence and Gender Differences. PLoS ONE, 9(7), 1-8. https://doi.org/7:10.1371/journal.pone.0103537
Klicpera, C., Schabmann, A., & Gasteiger-Klicpera, B. (1993). Lesen- und Schreibenlernen während der Pflichtschulzeit: Eine Längsschnittstudie über die Häufigkeit und Stabilität von Lese- und Rechtschreibschwierigkeiten in einem Wiener Schulbezirk. Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie, 21, 214-225.
Rossmann, P. (2014). Depressionstest für Kinder – II [depression test for children -II] (DTK-II). Verlang Hans Huber.
Schneider, W., Blanke, I., Faust, V., & Küspert, P. (2011). Würzburger Leise Leseprobe – Revision [Würzburg silent reading sample] (WLLP-R): Ein Gruppentest für die Grundschule. Hogrefe.
Schulte-Körne, G. (2010). The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International, 107, 718-727. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718
Turunen, T., Kiuru, N., Poskiparta, E., Niemi, P., & Nurmi, J.-E. (2018). Word reading skills and externalizing and internalizing problems from grade 1 to grade 2 – developmental trajectories and bullying involvement in grade 3. Scientific Studies of Reading, 23, 161-177. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2018.1497036
Universität of Cologne (2022). Lubo-les: Sozial-emotionales Präventionsprogramm für Kinder mit Leseschwierigkeiten. https://lubo-les.uni-koeln.de/
Visser, L., Kalmar, J., Linkersdörfer, J., Görgen, R., Rothe, J., Hasselhorn, M., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2020). Comorbidities between specific learning disorders and psychopathology in Elementary School Children in Germany. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11(292), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00292
WHO (1998). Fragebogen zum Wohlbefinden. https://www.psykiatri-regionh.dk/who-5/Documents/WHO5_German.pdf
WHO (2022). ICD-11: International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision. https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en
31. LEd – Network on Language and Education
Paper
Effects of Sentence Complexity and Reading-Related Skills on Scanpath Patterns During Paragraph Reading in Adolescents
Alexandra Berlin Khenis, Elena Semenova, Anastasia Streltsova, Marina Norkina, Tatiana Logvinenko
Sirius University, Russian Federation
Presenting Author: Semenova, Elena;
Streltsova, Anastasia
Adequate reading comprehension skills are fundamental for academic success and adult well-being (Lervåg et al., 2018). Adolescence presents a critical stage in reading development. It is the transitional period, as readers are expected to become proficient in decoding and understanding words in isolation and turn to learning of meaning construction from complex texts. Adolescents need to master how to rapidly form a so-called “situation model of text” and integrate new words as they read to build a rich representation of the text which is beyond what is stated explicitly (Kintsch, 1998). This integration process is described by the Reading Systems Framework (Perfetti & Stafura, 2014) which states that excellent readers are characterized by effortless access to orthographic and lexical representations from a written text, while less skilled readers experience difficulties with word and sentence integration. Although studies into cognitive and neurofunctional underpinnings in reading comprehension and its difficulties are not numerous (Landi & Ryherd, 2017), the common agreement is that various combinations of (1) readers’ individual differences, such as reading fluency, vocabulary, free recall, verbal and non-verbal working memory (Spencer et al., 2018), and (2) text parameters, such as sentence and text complexity (Rayner & Pollatsek, 1989; Clifton & Staub, 2011), account for variations in reading comprehension performance (Leon Guerrero et al., 2021)
The current study’s general objective is to investigate readers and text factors contributing to reading comprehension performance, utilizing eye-tracking methodology. Three points constitute the study’s rationale and novelty.
First, over the past 30 years, a vast body of research focusing on eye movements in reading also considered individual differences and stimuli complexity (Rayner et al., 2015). In an eye-tracking study, Kuperman and colleagues (2018) found that syntactic complexity of paragraphs strongly predicted reading comprehension and eye movement behavior in English-speaking university students. However, the findings on effects of syntactic text properties are not always consistent (Arya et al., 2011). Further, lexical units that constrain the way in which parts of discourse are interpreted (Nyan, 2016) add a lot to the text structure and thus, might also contribute to the reading comprehension. For this reason, in the current study, we focus on the role that syntactic complexity, i.e. sentence structures, and lexical complexity, i.e. discourse markers and key nouns used in the text, play in adolescents’ reading patterns.
Second, another point considers study methodology. A huge part of studies focused on words and sentences. Paragraphs, on the other hand, provide more ecological stimuli for reading research, enabling evaluation of reading strategies and overall reading behavior. Furthermore, in the recent decade, new methods for analyzing eye movement parameters emerged. One example is the scanpath analysis, which has significant advantages over analysis of average parameters of fixation and saccade per each area of interest (von der Malsburg et al., 2015). Here, we utilize a scanpath approach to study overall reading patterns and different reading strategies used by readers during sentence and paragraph reading.
Third, while extensive research was conducted on the structural relations between reading comprehension and reading-related skills in the English language (Garcia & Cain, 2014; Rayner et al., 2015), other languages are still understudied (Landerl et al., 2022). The current work focuses on these issues in the Russian language, providing an opportunity to extrapolate existing findings for another language and orthography.
To summarize, the aim of this research is to (1) identify reading patterns characteristic of skilled and less skilled adolescent readers using the scanpath analysis and (2) explore whether and how sentence complexity and reading-related individual differences contribute to reading patterns of skilled and less skilled adolescent readers.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedA total of 60 adolescents (age ranging from 12 to 18) participated in the study. The sample consisted of the participants with different reading comprehension abilities and included those who (a) scored lower than 1.0 SD on reading comprehension standardized task, (b) attended gifted programs in literacy, (с) represented average readers (± 1 SD). Participants were then assigned to two groups (N=30 in each group) - high skilled and low skilled readers - based on their scores in reading tasks. The groups were carefully matched on a number of confounding variables. Participants either had normal or corrected to normal vision. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Sirius University, Russia. Prior to the study, informed consents were obtained from both children and their legally authorized representatives.
An experimental paradigm to record eye-movement data during reading was developed in the Experiment Builder software. The reading materials contained six expository paragraphs. After each paragraph, the participants were presented with either related (n= 8) or unrelated (n=8) nouns for the recall test. Recall targets were used once in the text. Afterward, the participants completed a true-false test, which was based on the paragraphs they read. The true and false sentences (n=60) were parallel in structure.
During the whole experiment, we recorded brain activity (EEG) and eye movements (eye tracker). In this paper, we will present only eye-tracking data. Eye-movements were recorded with an EyeLink 1000 desktop eye-tracker (SR Research) with a sampling rate of 1000 Hz.
Participants also completed a large battery of tests assessing various components of reading sub-skills (vocabulary depth, decoding, reading fluency, and reading comprehension tasks), as well as executive functions (verbal and visuospatial working memory).
The eye data was preprocessed in the Data View program (SR Research). The method of scanpath analysis was chosen as the main method to map adolescents’ reading patterns. By reading patterns, we understand the complex of all fixations and saccades, including their sequence of appearance in the process of reading the stimuli. Thus, scanpath analysis does not analyze participants’ individual oculomotor parameters separately per each area of interest, but the whole reading process. The scanpath dissimilarity scores were calculated with the scanpath software package for R (von der Malsburg et al., 2015). The cluster analysis by scanpath type will be further performed, which will allow a more detailed description of the groups, taking into account the results of subtests.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsCurrently, the research team is at the stage of data analysis. We expect to see the differences in eye-movement activity between high and low performing adolescent readers. First, we expect differences in reading patterns, specifically, more regressions in the low-performing group. Moreover, we assume that sentence processing time will be longer in the low-performing group because of rereading within a sentence or returning to the previous sentence. We also expect that average characteristics of saccade and fixation per each area of interest will be greater in the low-performing reading group.
Secondly, cluster analysis by the type of scans will allow us to distinguish clusters in groups with highly and lowly developed reading skills. Having data on the subtests will allow defining reading sub-skills that contribute to reading comprehension in each group.
We expect that reading strategies will reflect the main source of constraint for different readers, i.e. lexical units, syntactic structure, or discourse markers. The analysis of oculomotor parameters will help to define the impact of lexical and syntactic parameters on the text perception. We assume that the chosen method will help to assess the role of discourse markers and syntactic structures in sentence processing.
Individual variability in vocabulary, verbal and non-verbal working memory, metacognition, reading fluency predictably will contribute to reading performance and eye movement activity revealing the most effective ones which make a successful reader.
Overall, on the fundamental level, our results contribute to a more in-depth understanding of reading patterns as a whole as opposed to its discrete components. This is the first time such a study is conducted with a sample of Russian-speaking adolescents.
ReferencesArya, D. J., Hiebert, E. H., & Pearson, P. D. (2011). The effects of syntactic and lexical complexity on the comprehension of elementary science texts. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 4(1), 107–125.
Clifton, C., & Staub, A. (2011). Syntactic influences on eye movements during reading. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199539789.013.0049
García, J. R., & Cain, K. (2014). Decoding and reading comprehension: A meta-analysis to identify which reader and assessment characteristics influence the strength of the relationship in English. Review of educational research, 84(1), 74-111. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654313499616
Kintsch, W. (1998). Comprehension: A Paradigm for Cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kuperman, V., Matsuki, K., & Van Dyke, J. A. (2018). Contributions of reader-and text-level characteristics to eye-movement patterns during passage reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 44(11), 1687-1713. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000547
Landerl, K., Castles, A., & Parrila, R. (2022). Cognitive precursors of reading: A cross-linguistic perspective. Scientific Studies of Reading, 26(2), 111-124. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2021.1983820
Landi, N., & Ryherd, K. (2017). Understanding specific reading comprehension deficit: A review. Language and linguistics compass, 11(2), e12234.
Leon Guerrero, S., Whitford, V., Mesite, L., & Luk, G. (2021). Text Complexity Modulates Cross-Linguistic Sentence Integration in L2 Reading. Frontiers in Communication, 6, Article 651769. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2021.651769
Lervåg, A., Hulme, C., & Melby‐Lervåg, M. (2018). Unpicking the developmental relationship between oral language skills and reading comprehension: It's simple, but complex. Child development, 89(5), 1821-1838. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12861
Nyan, T. (2016). Context construction as mediated by discourse markers: An adaptive approach. (Studies in Pragmatics; Vol. 15, No. 198 pages). Brill.
Perfetti, C., & Stafura, J. (2014). Word knowledge in a theory of reading comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 22-37. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470757642.ch13
Rayner, K., Abbott, M. J., & Plummer, P. (2015). Individual differences in perceptual processing and eye movements in reading. In Handbook of Individual Differences in Reading (pp. 366-381). Routledge.
Spencer, M., Gilmour, A. F., Miller, A. C., Emerson, A. M., Saha, N. M., & Cutting, L. E. (2019). Understanding the influence of text complexity and question type on reading outcomes. Reading and writing, 32, 603-637. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9883-0
von der Malsburg, T., Kliegl, R., & Vasishth, S. (2015). Determinants of scanpath regularity in reading. Cognitive science, 39(7), 1675-1703. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12208
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