10. Teacher Education Research
Paper
Development of Students' Analytical and Formulation Skills through Problem-Based Learning
Gulmira Syzdykova, Bates Sydykova, Aigerim Abzal
Nazarbayev intellectual schools, Kazakhstan
Presenting Author: Sydykova, Bates;
Abzal, Aigerim
In the article, the extent to which problem-based learning (PBL) contributes to the development of students' analytical and conceptual skills in mathematics, physics and English language classes is carried out on the basis of action research, and the results of the research are presented. The purpose of this action research was to contribute to the development of reasoning skills by creating a problem in the classroom. Tasks: implementation of educational goals, use of teaching methods, consideration of individual abilities of students, monitoring of lessons, reflection, re-planning, differentiation. The research was conducted from 2021 until 2023 with the participation of students from grades 9-12, curators, parents, teachers, psychologists. In order to solve practical situations, the student needs to be able to effectively use the previous knowledge and skills formed on the basis of certain laws[1;139]. Therefore, each teacher used practical situations to achieve the expected results. Students, especially with difficulty in analyzing, were considered as experimental and control groups. Innovations of research: implementation of interdisciplinary communication; student's creative work; long-term knowledge retention; 11-12th graders are more inclined to research.
PBL is the principle of differentiation that contributes to the development of students' cognitive and creative abilities. Students search, predict, compare, analyze and conclude while solving situations. Based on research[3], PBL in pedagogy includes three stages: activation of learning, research method, problem-based learning. In 1909 J.Dewey considered PBL as "problem solving" in his book "How I Think". The concept of value is the five stages of reflective thinking, which are: all possible solutions; difficulties in finding a solution; formulation of the problem; the use of assumptions that define observations and data as hypotheses; demonstration of correctness of hypotheses in practice. J.Bruner's concept: the structural role of knowledge in the learning process; the need for the student's readiness to study; development of quick thinking through intuition; the importance of motivation in learning. J.Dewey considers PBL through reflective thinking, and J.Bruner through intuitive thinking. D.Poya, O.Zelts, K.Dunker developed this method and formed foreign pedagogy[3;11-13]. A.M.Matyushkin compiled a model of the problematic situation, presented its conditions and solutions [3;56].
V.Okon considers PBL as a method and pays attention to the stability of knowledge, the development of cognitive interest, and the educational value of it. Taking into account the non-universality of the method, it is intended to be used together with other methods. It is important that it is not immediately after a new topic, but that it leads to the development of the student's cognitive interest in the formation and use of skills[2;69]. M.I.Makhmutov explains: students' acquisition of new knowledge includes their own, the teacher's explanation, students' reproductive actions, setting tasks, and students' performance[1;299]. H.J.Elaine, K.Goh say that PBL has an impact on the student's long-term retention of knowledge, and the use of it. It is concluded that, compared to traditional teaching, the activity in class increases since they analyze and create[4]. Lerner I.Ya.: having a creative atmosphere in the classroom, PBL requires new and high-quality requirements from the teacher. Therefore, the teacher should master the research situations in their field and master the cognitive methodology[5]. It turns out that this method is effective in activating thinking, and the implementation of PBL organizes a collaborative environment and leads to the planning of teaching strategies accordingly[6]. O.V.Minovskaya clarifies the effectiveness of problem teaching: student's ability to search, analytical thinking skills development; analyze and conclude; acquired knowledge is long-lasting and can be used; confidence is strengthened. K.A.Arapov[6], M.Yu.Soloshchenko[7], R.I.Molofeev[8], S.M.Kaupenbaeva[9], B.M.Utegenova[10], based on the research, reveal the influence, implementation, and effectiveness of PBL in class.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedNIS-Programme, which is used in our school, is aimed at the development of critical thinking, the development of functional literacy, in-depth teaching of mathematics and natural sciences, and the formation of trilingual education[11].
Questionnaires were taken from 75 students using Google Forms, conducted conversations with parents, and used reflections of our lessons. The results of the Eysenck test, Gardner's type of intelligence, G.V.Rezapkin's types of thinking and temperament offered by psychologists were effective in the use of differentiation, in the development of tasks and grouping.
According to V.Okon PBL in mathematics are: setting a problem, solving it, checking the solution. By using acquired knowledge, checking the correctness of predictions in solving the situation, students can practice the skill of analytical thinking[2;80-85]. A differentiated task was developed for 11th graders to compare the logarithmic function graph using the graph of the exponential function with the graph in Geogebra, and formulate its properties, uses knowledge of angles in space to find angles between lines, lines and planes, and between planes, respectively, through vector and parametric equations.
The third stage of solving the problem considered by R.I.Malafeev is the method of checking the forecast, in different ways. There are two main methods: the theoretical concept of prediction; experimental evidence[10;22]: In order to study the problem "The relationship between the potential energy of a spring and its’ use" for the 9 graders, they should first make a hypothesis and perform an experimental test in a group to prove their hypothesis. Innovation: each student in the group presents their ideas, which is effective in providing a theoretical concept of the prediction and determining what equipment is needed.
It was evident that for 10 graders PBL is an effective way to enhance language proficiency, including grammatical accuracy, vocabulary development, and pragmatic skills. As Millis[24] suggests PBL can be challenging to implement in the classroom and requires proper preparation. Teachers should consider the proficiency levels, the availability of resources, and the need for scaffolding. It is important to keep in mind that PBL is demanding for the teacher and requires proper planning and preparation.
12th graders make predictions and determine the ways to check their accuracy in performing tasks in physics, provide proofs, conduct experiments, observations, analyze and differentiate the obtained results[8;20]. In this regard, the method of problem-based teaching showed another evidence of its effectiveness in promoting students' academic language learning and development of high-level skills.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe classrooms involved in the study were provided with integrated and traditional lessons. The results of using PBL were higher, than during traditional learning. Through the result of feedback from students "Effectiveness of problem-based learning", it was promoted to increase the learning activity of students, to pay attention to the academic language at its level by searching for information, and creatively increase cognitive interests. Achieving the expected results, we made sure that interdisciplinary connections were implemented, students' confidence increased, and knowledge acquired on the basis of PBL was long remembered. It is clear that the indicator is high during PBL and the tendency of 11-12th-graders to solve the problem when a problemic situation arises.
According to the results, we clarify PBL with three conclusions: educational-problematic tasks set by the teacher, which create a problematic situation for students; the use of general methods in learning new knowledge by understanding, accepting and solving the problem; use of appropriate methods in solving specific tasks.
In conclusion, we think that using the method of PBL, we have influenced the development of the cognitive interests and activities in class, searching for information individually, in pairs and in groups, predicting, analyzing and drawing conclusions, conducting a small research, and the acquisition of academic language.
Disadvantages of the problem-based teaching method: it is not possible to create a problem for all learning objectives; students should have basic knowledge and skills in solving problems; It takes more time to learn new knowledge than other methods.
Despite these shortcomings, the PBL method of teaching is firmly established in modern pedagogy. Therefore, we offer the following recommendations: justify the choice of topic or section; systematization of preliminary quality preparation period; development of guidelines; use differentiation during the selection of educational forms.
References1. Makhmutov M.I. (1977). Problem learning. Selected works, Enlightenment.
2. Okon V. (1968). The basis of problem-based learning. M., Enlightenment.
3. Matyushkin A.M. etc. (2010). Problem learning. Book 1. Izd-vo Nizhnevartovsk.
4. Elaine H.J., Karen G. (2016). Problem-Based Learning: An Overview of its Process and Impact on Learning. Health Professions Education 2, 75-79.
5. Lerner I. Ya. (1974). Problem learning.: M. https:/lerner-i-ya-problemnoe-obuchenie
6. Arapov K.A, Rahmatullina GG. (2012). Problem learning as a means of developing the intellectual sphere of schoolchildren, scientific article. "Young student", ISSN 2072-02977, No. 8, Volume II, page 290.
7. Skibina N.G., Soloshchenko M.Yu. (2015). Problem learning in mathematics lessons in secondary school. International student scientific journal, No. 6.
8. https://eduherald.ru/ru/article/view?id=13857
9. Malafeev R.I. (1980). Problem teaching of physics in secondary school. Enlightenment.
10. https://cep.nis.edu.kz/nis-programme/o-programme/
11. Koylyk N.O., Kaupenbaeva S.M. (2019). Effectiveness of problem teaching in the educational process. Methodological guide.
12. Utegenova B.M., Smagliy T.I. (2017). The basis of differentiation of teaching and learning in a modern school. Study guide, 98 p.
13. Malov N.N. (1968). Tasks on physics with the application of the law of conservation of energy. M., Enlightenment.
14. Razumovsky V.G. (1966). Creative tasks in physics in secondary school. M., Enlightenment.
15. Gritsyanov A.A. (2003). New Philosophical Dictionary: 3rd ed., corrected, Mn.: Knizhnyi Dom, 1280 p.
16. Ilyina T.A. (1976). Problem learning - concept and content//Vestnik vysshey shkoly.
17. Pilipets L.V., Klimenko E.V., Buslova N.S. (2014). Problem-based learning: from Socrates to the formation of competences//Fundamentalnye issledovaniya.
18. Sarbasheva Z.M., Kurdanova H.M. (2009). Problem learning in the process of individualization of learning//Vestnik TGPU.
19. Sitarov V.A., 2009. Problem learning as one of the directions of modern educational technologies // Znanie. Understanding. Skill.
20. Kudryavtsev V.T. (1991). Problem learning: origins, essence, perspective, M.: Znanie, 80 p.
21. Hurd S. (2008). Problem-based learning in an English for academic purposes course: Enhancing critical thinking skills. English for Specific Purposes 27(3), 315-334.
22. Bowers J.M., Dheram P. (2011). Problem-based learning in mathematics education: A review of the literature. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, 42(3), 233-262.
23. Smith J.A., MacGregor, J.T. (2001). Problem-based learning in a high school English curriculum. English Journal, 90(4), 92-97.
24. Millis B.J., Cottell P.G. (1998). Problem-based learning for English as a second language. TESOL Journal, 7(2), 9-16.
25. Millis B.J. (2010). Problem-based learning for the 21st century: Skills for the future. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 40(2), 34-48.
10. Teacher Education Research
Paper
Bridging the Gap - Working with Problem-based Cases to Develop Student Teachers’ Professional Identity
Nina Helgevold, Marianne Sandvik Tveitnes, Vegard Moen
University of Stavanger, Norway
Presenting Author: Helgevold, Nina;
Sandvik Tveitnes, Marianne
Many student teachers (STs) experience a gap between theory and practice and find ‘theories’ irrelevant to professional development (Laursen 2014). Darling-Hammond (2014) describes the ‘presumed divide’ between theory and practice as one of the core dilemmas of teacher education. A Norwegian study (Smeplass, 2018) points to contradictions between educational policy and the challenges STs face during practical training periods and as recent graduates. Students struggle to bridge the gap between a theoretical focus in their education and practical challenges they meet in schools and classrooms.
Menter (2016) argues that future teachers need to be ‘research literate’, being able to read, evaluate and use the research findings that are relevant to their work and have the capacity and skills to engage in research if context and conditions are appropriate. Hermansen (2018) outlines two metaphors for teacher professionalism, the teacher as a craftsperson and the teacher as a professional scientist. The teacher as a craftsperson emphasises teaching as a practical activity based on personal experience and reflections, while the teacher as a professional scientist emphasises teaching as research-based knowledge, where general principles and guidelines should be the basis for teachers’ teaching. The two metaphors can be interpreted as descriptions of professional identities and relate to the ongoing discussion on what kind of teachers we need for the future[1]. Hermansen (2018) argues that the two metaphors should not be seen a dichotomy, rather the interaction between these are of importance.
Professional identity is developed in interaction with others (Wenger 1998). Haslam (2017) identifies five ‘I’s, ‘Identification’, ‘Ideation’, ‘Interaction’, ‘Influence’ and ‘Ideology’ as significant for social identity and education. Identification relates to group membership shaping an individual’s behaviour to the extent that their social identity derived from this group membership is incorporated into their sense of self. Ideation or what people identify with is as important as mutual identification. Interaction is what develops and galvanises social identities. Influence is what makes identification, ideation and interaction possible. Important is that leadership is only made possible by perceptions of shared identity between leaders and followers. Ideology is inherent in policies and educational processes, and educational experience is usually characterised by several.
Previous studies (Patrick & McPhee 2014, Preston et al. 2015) has introduced cases as inquiry-, or problem-based approaches in academic courses in ITE. They found that the majority of the STs experienced that problem-based cases enabled them to make links between theory and practice. Increased engagement and enhanced learning outcomes for most students are reported in both studies, while they point to the construction of the cases as important, as well as the need for instructional scaffolding. In this study digital cases related to central themes or content of the course were developed in collaboration between teacher educators at campus and practice teachers in schools. The aim was to develop practice-based cases that would open for discussions of different perspectives and to “bridge the gap” between theory and practice.
In this study we see student teachers’ professional identity as constructed through social interaction in engagement with problem-based cases and research-based literature. The following research questions guide the study:
- In which ways do working with digital problem-based cases influence student teachers’ professional identity?
- How does problem-based cases bridge the gap between theory and practice?
[1] 10. Teacher Education Research | EERA (eera-ecer.de).
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe research is conducted at one Norwegian teacher education institution spring 2022 with a follow up study spring 2023. The context of the study is a 15 ECTs course in the subject pedagogy and pupil knowledge . Problem-based video-cases are used as introduction to central themes in the course and the cases are made subject for inquiries and further analysis considering theoretical perspectives and research-based knowledge. The cases are introduced at campus, but also discussed with practice teachers in schools. Based on the 2022 study, some changes in organization were made in the 2023 course. Students were divided into smaller groups and reading and discussing relevant literature before meeting at campus were scaffolded more by teacher educators.
Participants in the study are STs (N=102) in their fourth year of a 5 yrs master program for primary education, including some of the practice teachers (N=6). The study is a mixed-method study. Quantitative surveys on STs experiences with relevance of the subject PEL in general are conducted in the beginning of the course (pre-course survey). Quantitative surveys on STs experiences with problem-based cases are conducted at the end of the course (post-course survey). In addition to the surveys, qualitative focus-group interviews with STs (N= 10) and 2 focus-group interviews with practice teachers (N= 6) in schools will be conducted spring 2023. (Due to Covid 19, these were not conducted in 2022). The surveys have questions with graded answers. For each of the graded questions, STs are asked to elaborate on their answers. Open-ended comments are analysed to identify common categories and patterns across the responses, using conventional content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). Focus groups interviews 2023 will be analysed following Braun and Clarks’ (2006/2019) phases of thematic analysis. Haslams’ (2017) five I’s will serve as an analytical framework to study student teachers’ professional identity.
Three teacher educators are responsible for the research project. Participation is voluntarily with written consent. The project is approved by SIKT
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsFindings from the 2022 and -23 pre-course survey show that a large majority (90%) of the STs find the subject relevant for their future jobs as teachers. Even though they find the subject relevant, only 38% report that they see a link between theoretical perspectives and everyday situations in schools. Most STs (69%) underline that what is taught at campus needs to be relevant for their practice, supporting them in their future jobs by offering them tools to use to be used in practical situations. Analyses point to STs understanding their professional identity mostly in line with the teacher as a craftsperson. In the post-course survey 2022, 76 % av the STs find the problem-based cases very relevant for the future work in schools, and 53% report that working with problem-based cases have supported them in linking theoretical perspectives with everyday situations in schools. This have widened their understanding, made them aware of the complexity in situations and given them different perspectives on how to understand and deal with situations. Analyses point to STs understanding their professional identity not only as a craftsperson, but also in line with the teacher as a professional scientist/researcher. The STs point to fellow-students as important for their motivation for their own engagement. They especially highlight group discussion related to the problem-based cases, as engaging and necessary in developing knowledge and professional identity. Haslam (2017) five ‘I’s , ‘Identification’, ‘Ideation’, ‘Interaction’, ‘Influence’ and ‘Ideology’ will be further elaborated on in the presentation, where focus group interviews will be part of the analyses.
ReferencesBraun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2019). Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis. Qualitative research in sport, exercise and health, 11(4), 589-597.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2014). Strengthening Clinical Preparation: The Holy Grail of Teacher Education, Peabody Journal of Education, 89(4), 547-561.
Haslam, S. A. (2017). The social identity approach to education and learning: Identification, ideation, interaction, influence and ideology. In K. I. Mavor, M. J. Platow, & B. Bizumic (Eds.), Self and social identity in educational contexts (pp. 19–52). Oxford: Routledge.
Hermansen, H. (2018) Kunnskapsarbeid i Lærerprofesjonen [Knowledgework in Teacher Profession]. Universitetsforlaget.
Hsieh, Hsiu-Fang & Shannon, Sarah E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15 (9), s. 1277–1288.
Laursen, P.F. (2014) Multiple bridges between theory and practice. In (eds). J.C. Smeby, M. Sutphen, Vocational to Professional Education Educating for social welfare (p.89-104). New York: Routledge.
Menter, I. (2016). Helga Eng lecture 2015: What is a teacher in the 21st century and what does a 21st century teacher need to know? Acta Didactica Norge, 10 (2), 11-25
Patrick , F. & McPhee, A. (2014) Evaluating the use of problem-based learning in a new initial teacher education degree. Teacher Education Advancement Network Journal (TEAN), 6 (2), 3-12.
Preston, L., Harvie, K. & Wallace, H. (2015) Inquiry-based Learning in Teacher Education: A primary Humanities Example. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 40 (12), 73-85.
Smeplass, E. (2018). Konstruksjonen av den problematiske lærerutdanningen Lærerutdanningen i et institusjonelt og politisk
landskap. (PhD). NTNU, Trondheim. Retrieved from https://ntnuopen.ntnu.no/ntnu-
xmlui/handle/11250/2571199
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice. Learning, meaning, identity. New York: Cambridge University Press.
10. Teacher Education Research
Paper
Professional Judgement Formation in Student Teachers’ Discussions of Ethically Themed Case Stories
Øyvind Wiik Halvorsen, Kjersti Lea, Ida Bukkestein, Line Torbjørnsen Hilt
University of Bergen, Norway
Presenting Author: Halvorsen, Øyvind Wiik;
Lea, Kjersti
Previous studies have pointed to ethical language and ethical knowledge as a weak point in teacher professionalism (see for example Tirri & Husu 2002, Ohnstad 2008, Bullough jr. 2011 Shapira-Lishchinsky 2011, Mosvold & Ohnstad 2016, Davies & Heyward 2019, Lindqvist, Thornberg & Colnerud 2020), where a main finding is that moral justifications seldom go beyond an intuition of “the best interest of the child” (Ohnstad 2008). However, teachers also experience their profession as being fraught with ethical issues, woven into relational work, questions of aims and means, and adherence to policy priorities. This may indicate that teacher education does not succeed in preparing teachers for the ethical challenges they encounter in schools.
The overall aim of the paper is to explore how case studies in teacher education can promote intellectual virtues, especially practical wisdom (phronesis), necessary for the formation of sound professional judgements aimed at good practice (eupraxia). Following an Aristotelian perspective, virtues are character traits that predispose a person to do the right thing. Moral virtues, such as courage and honesty, are developed through habituation, while intellectual virtues are mainly cultivated through formal education. This paper concentrates on the cultivation of intellectual virtues and presents findings from a qualitative study of student teachers’ discussions of ethically themed case stories.
The research question for the paper is:
How is professional judgement formed in student teachers’ discussions of ethically themed case stories?
Following the antinomic nature of pedagogical practice (Oettingen 2012), our theoretical point of departure is a pluralistic view of the good in teaching. Because of the complexities and uncertainties of the institutionalized pedagogical domain, teachers face a manifold of normative responsibilities. Examples include upholding the integrity of the profession, expressing loyalty to democratic decisions, engaging in critical inquiry into teaching’s knowledge base and values, promoting justice in distribution of educational goods and recognition, and showing care for students’ well-being and interests. These and similar responsibilities are what we can call prima facie (Ross 2002), meaning they all at first sight seem equally right and valuable. Consequently, they may come into conflict and produce ethical dilemmas. Moreover, it may be unclear exactly what a specific responsibility entails, and how one should live up to it in a concrete situation, for example delimiting care in a professionally apt way. Nevertheless, relying on a virtuous purposive disposition, teachers can sense, deliberate, and form a professional judgement that wisely navigates the dilemma and the actions that follows from them. In this manner, virtues aid professional judgement in clarifying a teacher’s actual responsibility in a particular situation.
However, this requires student teachers to be provided opportunities to cultivate appropriate intellectual virtues for the teaching profession, such as practical wisdom. This involves working systematically with (1) moral perception, an awareness of the prima facie responsibilities as well as other ethically salient features present in situations, and (2) moral justification, the ability to give normative reasons for decisions and actions. Both moral perception and moral justification are necessary constituents for sound professional judgement. Furthermore, the process involves exercising (beginning) intellectual virtues. One possible way of facilitating this in teacher education is by using the artifact case story and the form group discussion. Written case stories can mediate some of the real-world complexity of ethical dilemmas, while group discussions benefit from multiple perspectives in sensitizing perception towards normative features and negotiating shared grounding for justifications. Together they may create a zone of proximal development (Vygotsky 1978, Eun 2019) for students.
Accordingly, we have focused our analysis on student teachers’ discussions of ethically themed case stories to explore how professional judgement, through moral perception and justification, is formed.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe study is grounded in a qualitative research design, encompassing audio recording of students’ discussions, observation from course teachers, and inductive, conventional content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon 2005).
The empirical material consists of transcripts of student discussions and field notes from course teachers. The student teachers who participated in the recorded discussions, represent a sample from two cohorts in the university’s teacher education program. One consists of groups of first-year students and the other of fourth-year students. The two samples were analyzed separately and then discussed comparatively in light of the research question. The choice of students from their first and fourth year as our sample was based on an interest in having students at the beginning and the end of their teacher education.
The procedure for data collection was the following: Students attended a lecture on ethics, relevant to their overall pedagogical coursework, followed by a seminar where case stories were to be discussed in groups. Before the seminar students had received information about the research project and what participation in it entailed. Students who consented to participation were organized in their own groups in separate classrooms from the rest of the seminar. The student groups were given two case stories and their discussion was audio recorded. Course teachers also took field notes during the discussion and afterwards in a brief evaluation session with the students. From the first-year cohort there were nine groups with five students in each and in the fourth-year cohort we expect approximately five groups with four-five students in each (this round of data collection is set for early February).
Following our theoretical perspective, the main categories used in the analysis of the student discussions were a) perceptions, encompassing identification of value, ethical relevance, and responsibilities in the dilemma-situations depicted in the case stories and b) justifications, encompassing negotiation over action-guiding reasons. Reasons that were analyzed as part of a moral justification were respectively consequences (e.g., this is the greatest good for the greatest number), rules (e.g., this is possible to will as a universal law or this is treating people as ends, not merely as means), and character (e.g., this is what a just teacher would do). Reasons that were part of a non-moral justification were respectively epistemic-scientistic (e.g., this is what research says is right), pragmatic-technical (e.g., this is what works), and legal-political (e.g., this is what the authorities want).
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsFirst, we expect our results to provide insight into the process of judgement formation among student teachers and examine how practical wisdom is activated and possibly enhanced in the zone of proximal development created by the case story and group discussion. Secondly, a central hypothesis of this study is that systematic teaching of ethics in lectures and seminars, combined with case stories and group work, may improve student teachers’ professional judgment. We expect to find that student teachers’ group-conversations on ethical cases will develop their ethical knowledge, as well as their ethical language. A preliminary finding that supports this expectation, is that the relationship between moral and non-moral justification changes throughout the teacher education program. When we compare first year students group conversations with the conversations of those students that are in their last semester, we see that newcomers primarily employ non-moral (especially pragmatic-technical and legal-political) justifications, while last semester students employ a combination of moral and non-moral justifications. This indicates that student teachers develop a more complex ethical vocabulary throughout their studies. Finally, case-stories as didactic artefacts (Vygotsky 1978), due to their narrativity, may have the potential for student engagement with ethics in a way that can contribute to the constitution of “the world of teaching” as primarily normative in a thick sense. It thus seeks to counteract an instrumental picture from becoming the naturalized point of departure for students.
ReferencesBullough jr., R. V. 2011. Ethical and moral matters in teaching and teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education 27:1, 21-28, doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2010.09.007
Davies, M & Heyward P. 2019. Between a hard place and a hard place: A study of ethical dilemmas experienced by student teachers while on practicum. British Educational Research Journal, 45:2, 372–387, DOI:10.1002/berj.3505
Eun, B. 2019. The zone of proximal development as an overarching concept: A framework for synthesizing Vygotsky’s theories. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 51:1, 18-30, doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2017.1421941
Hsieh, H.-F. & Shannon, S. E. 2005. Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15:9, 1277-1288, doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687
Kirsi, T. & Husu, J. 2002. Care and Responsibility in 'The Best Interest of the Child': Relational voices of ethical dilemmas in teaching. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, 8:1, 65-80, DOI:10.1080/13540600120110574.
Lindqvist, H. Thornberg, R. & Colnerud, G. 2020. Ethical dilemmas at work placements in teacher education. Teaching Education, 32:4, DOI:10.1080/10476210.2020.1779210.
Mosvold, R. & Ohnstad, F. O. 2016. Profesjonsetiske perspektiv på læreres omtale av elever. Norsk pedagogisk tidsskrift, 1, 26-36.
Oettingen, A. 2010. Almen pædagogik. Pædagogikkens grundlæggende spørgsmål. Gyldendal.
Ohnstad, F. O. 2008. Profesjonsetiske dilemmaer og handlingsvalg blant lærere i lærerutdanningens praksisskoler. PhD Thesis. University of Oslo. DUO Research Archive. https://www.duo.uio.no/handle/10852/48319.
Ross, W. D. 2002. The Right and the Good. (Ed. P. Stratton-Lake). Oxford University Press.
Shapira-Lishchinsky, O. 2011. Teachers’ critical incidents: Ethical dilemmas in teaching practice, Teaching and Teacher Education, 27:3, 648-656, DOI: doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2010.11.003
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes (Ed. M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman). Harvard University Press.
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