26. Educational Leadership
Paper
Crisis Leadership and Communication: Working with School Communities after Catastrophic School Fires
Jennifer Charteris, Adele Nye
University of New England, Australia
Presenting Author: Charteris, Jennifer;
Nye, Adele
Climate change has led to a world wide increase in severe weather events . (Lozano, et al 2017, Clarke & Evans, 2019). In Australia, school communities and their surrounding landscapes have been ravaged by fire and flood and these events are becoming more common and critical events that impact schools are only likely to increase. This is not a problem associated only with the Australian continent, rather it is an urgent global concern. In the aftermath of recent catastrophic fires and floods, is an opportune time to learn how leaders are deal effectively with a crisis that affects so many people in their school communities.
During crises school leaders are forced to very abruptly deal with catastrophic events which require very specific leadership skills tools, strategies and practices. Scholars suggest that an alternative approach to leadership is required during times of crisis (Drysdale & Gurr 2017; Mutch 2015; Smith & Riley 2012). The experiences of those who have faced these challenges in the past offer an insight into not just what works well, but also it indicates what resources need to be developed. Moreover, how leaders lead through crises and consideration of the unique strengths and initiatives developed by school communities is an area identified for further research (Okilwa & Barnett, 2021).
This presentation shares findings from a study which is premised on a theoretical framework drawn from draws both leadership and school crisis literature. The research question addresses the features of school leaders’ communication that are required in times of crisis. The objective of the study is to map the extant literature on how school leaders communicate during crises and explore the features of communication of school leaders who experienced catastrophic bushfires. When a major fire occurs in a school, the impact can be felt for years to come and how school communities rebuild depends on strong leadership (Nye, 2016).
The importance of school leaders’ communication during crisis events cannot be underestimated. Communication during crises has to be effective and is key in navigating through the event and its aftermath. Effective communication is important for protecting lives during the crisis, maintaining the reputation of the school, and mitigating any negative repercussions associated with the crisis (Coombs, 2019). Although traditional means of communication may be obstructed during a crisis, finding a means for rapid and accurate communications can mitigate losses and foster trust between school leaders school and those affected (Alanezi, 2021). School leaders filter messages from mainstream news outlets and social media to reassure teachers and parents (Hume et al., 2021) and, in turn, they are responsible for brokering information to the community and public. This requires expertise in working with the media. Moreover communication is an important element in the recouperation process as leaders deal with communities in trauma and shock.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe research was designed to provide an ethnographic snap shot of the experiences of school leaders who led their schools through catastrophic bushfire events. The project is located in an interpretivist research paradigm. The collective case study spans four school sites where bushfires have taken place. Four significant school fires were chosen to be examined in depth. The data collection consisted of semi-structured interviews with school leaders, as well as the examination of documents relating to the fires and social media grabs. Photographs were provided by the school leaders of the devastation and the key initiatives developed during the recuperation phase. The school leaders were invited to share a narrative of their experience during a bushfire event. It became apparent during the interviews that communication was an important feature of leadership during the bushfire crises.
As this presentation specifically addresses leader communication during crises, the primary data sources comprise the interviews with school leaders from these four schools in New South Wales, Australia. This context comprised regional and urban schools whose school leaders volunteered to share their experiences. The purposive sampling targeted school leaders who were interested in sharing their experience of leading through a catastrophic bushfire event. Ethical clearance was received from the University of New England and the school leaders received informational letters that explained the study, requested consent for voluntary involvement and assured confidentiality. All interviews were audio recorded and transcribed. The data were thematically analysed. The researchers created categories using a coding process. These were discussed by the researchers and verified to enhance trustworthiness. The interview questions examined the school leaders’ perceptions and perspectives. The were semi structured so as to invite the leaders to share narratives of their experiences. The authors conducted inductive analyses in order to generate themes. The thematic analysis examined the leaders’ narratives to determine connections and commonalities and highlight different units of meaning. The researchers used colour coding to identify themes (Williams & Moser, 2019) which will be shared in the presentation.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsResearch on crises in schools mainly centre on prevention and the approaches taken to mitigate impacts during and immediately after crises events. Communication is integral to this work. Each school, community, and landscape is different and each crisis is born of unique circumstances. It is well acknowledged that context significantly impacts leadership practices (Clarke & O’Donoghue, 2016; Gurr & Drysdale, 2018) and therefore there are nuanced findings in this case study research. Educators and researchers may find the findings relatable and the study can inform the field moving forward.
While there has been much written about educators’ responses to the COVID-19 and there is a growing corpus of literature on leading during the pandemic, the sudden catastrophic nature of natural disasters bring with them their own set of challenges. The focus of this study on communication may be helpful for educators and policy makers who need to prepare ahead of disasters. Moreover the findings highlight the important of effective communication in fostering both trust and resilience among school communities. Moreover the findings highlight the value of communicating to support distributed leadership in post-critical stages of reconstruction and the rebuilding of resources.
The findings of this research can be brokered with Departments of Education, policy makers, leaders and teachers in schools, and their broader school communities. There is an ongoing need for responsive and effective practices associated with crisis leadership in schools.
ReferencesAlanezi, A. (2021). Using social networks in school crisis management: evidence from middle school principals in Kuwait. Education 3-13, 49(8), 935-944
Clarke, H. & Evans, J.P. (2019). Exploring the future change space for fire weather in southeast Australia. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 136, 513-527.
Clarke, S., & O’Donoghue, T. (2016). Leadership, learning, and change in post-conflict schools: Much Ado about a Lot. In Leadership in Diverse Learning Contexts (pp. 129-143). Springer, Cham.
Coombs, T. (2019). Crisis Communication. Encyclopedia of Public Relations. New York: Tyles & Francis.
Drysdale, L., & Gurr, D. (2017). Leadership in uncertain times. International Studies in educational administration, 45(2), 131-159.
Gurr, D., & Drysdale, L. (2018). Leading high needs schools: Findings from the international school leadership development network. International Studies in Educational Administration, 46(1), 147-156.
Hulme, M., Beauchamp, G., Clarke, L., & Hamilton, L. (2021). Collaboration in times of crisis: Leading UK schools in the early stages of a pandemic. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 1-20.
Lozano, O. M., Salis, M., Ager, A. A., Arca, B., Alcasena, F. J., Monteiro, A. T., Finney, M., Del Giudice, L., Scoccimarro, E., & Spano, D. (2017). Assessing climate change impacts on wildfire exposure in Mediterranean areas. Risk Analysis, 37(10), 1898 – 1916.
Mutch, C. (2015). Leadership in times of crisis: Dispositional, relational and contextual factors influencing school principals’ actions. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 14, 186-194.
Nye, A. (2016). 'Working from the boot of a red falcon': The impact of major fires in four Australian schools. Australian and International Journal of Rural Education, 83-98.
Okilwa, N. S., & Barnett, B. G. (2021). Strategies and Practices of Leading Schools During the Current COVID-19 Crisis. International Studies in Educational Administration (Commonwealth Council for Educational Administration & Management (CCEAM)), 49(3)\, 61-81.
Smith, L., & Riley, D. (2012). School leadership in times of crisis. School Leadership & Management, 32(1), 57-71.
Sutherland, I. E. (2017). Learning and growing: Trust, leadership, and response to crisis. Journal of Educational Administration, 55(1), 2-17.
Williams, M., & Moser, T. (2019). The art of coding and thematic exploration in qualitative research. International Management Review, 15(1), 45-55.
26. Educational Leadership
Paper
Personality Traits of Principals in the Primary Schools in Greece and the Decision-making Crisis Management
Eleftheria Pantsiou, Georgios Iordanidis
University of Western Macedonia, Greece
Presenting Author: Pantsiou, Eleftheria;
Iordanidis, Georgios
General description and research questions
The decision making in a crisis situation is affected directly by the personality characteristics of the principal who will seize the opportunity appropriately in order to learn through it (Kouzes & Posner, 2007; Bolman & Deal, 2008; Saiti, Saitis & Gounaropoulos, 2008). The present study aims to showcase those personality traits of the principals, in Greek primary schools, which contribute during the process of decision making in a crisis situation at a school unit. The research questions are the following:
1) What personality traits do primary school principals in Greece believe they have for crisis management decision-making process?
2) How does principal’s gender affect personality traits in the crisis management decision-making process?
Theoretical framework
The principal’s personality is directly related to the decision making and, consequently, to the school management. Those individuals who are aware of the traits of their personality are in a position to optimize them effectively during the process of decision making (Oplatka, 2004).
According to Seeger (2006) and Bundy, Pfarrer, Short and Coombs (2017), a crisis generates new conditions which differ from the standard context of decision making, considering that they are characterized by high levels of uncertainty, limited response time, lack of information, stress, and pressure.
Regardless of the uncertainty, the tension and the intricacy that are induced by a crisis, the principal should take both immediate and accurate decisions (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Thus, both decisiveness, which is defined as the principal’s ability to think and act based on the available tools and practices (Cooper, 2007), and the experience, namely, the comparison of the current crisis situation to an older one, owning to acquiring knowledge of the past which is applicable to a current condition (Murawski, 2011), play a significant role in the process of decision making in a crisis situation. Equally important are the adaptability, the composure, the dedication to the goals that have been set, as well as the communication and cooperative skills (Bolman & Deal, 2008; Kouzes & Posner, 2007; Cooper, 2007).
In addition, research has shown (Sergent & Stajkovic, 2020; Hoobler, Masterson, NKomo & Michel, 2018; Ryan, Haslam, Morgenroth, Rink, Stoker & Peters, 2016) that the gender of the principal determines the characteristics of their personality, when they are called to deal with a crisis. At the same time, the total way of handling a crisis is affected.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedFor the collection of data, quantitative and qualitative methods have been applied. More specifically, the 5-point Likert scale questionnaire constitutes the basic tool of the study, which is a part of a larger instrument created and applied initially in Murawski research (2011) for the measurement of the principal’s characteristics of their personality in a crisis situation. The questionnaire consisted of 7 mandatory queries, adapted to the 5-point Likert scale, translated in Greek and shared electronically to one thousand participants. Stratified sampling was used in order to select these participants from all over Greece. Furthermore, semi-structured interviews were conducted, using the Webex application for online meetings. During the individual interviews a fictitious scenario was utilised which described a crisis situation in the school environment and it was based on the technique of the Royal Dutch Shell/Global Business Network (GBN). Although scenario planning is a highly imaginative and interactive exercise, the process is a systematic and iterative one. According to GBN technique the process of scenario planning includes five phases, orientation of the issue, exploring driving forces, synthesizing a scenario framework, action and monitoring (Bishop, Hines & Collins, 2007). The scenario consisted of 9 simple questions, focused on principals’ traits of personality during a crisis situation. A pilot study was implemented for both questionnaire and interview. In the quantitative study, 374 principals of primary schools, from all over Greece, participated voluntarily. Ten of those principals also took part voluntarily in the qualitative study.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe principals that participated in the quantitative study recognised that, during the decision making in a crisis situation, they possess at a great extent, characteristics such as cooperative abilities, adaptability, communication skills, dedication to the goals and determination. Equally, they possess equanimity and experience to a great degree.
The results that arise from the qualitative study have shown that all 10 principals who participated recognised that in cases in which a decision had to be made to deal with a crisis, they have the necessary equanimity and cooperative abilities. Additionally, almost everyone mentioned that they have the essential orderliness, more than half mentioned that they are prepared for a crisis and almost half of the participants mentioned that they have the needed readiness. A smaller percentage of them referred to characteristics like dedication to the goals, empathy, determination, communication skills, responsibility and insightfulness.
The aforementioned characteristics are associated and affected directly by the gender of the principal. Women principals were more determined and willing to help others, instead of men. Also, they had communicative and cooperative abilities.
These traits are activated and defined by principals’ perceptions and experiences (Kouzes & Posner, 2007; Bolman & Deal, 2008). In addition, they are affected by the gender factor, a fact that differentiates the way in which both women and men principals make decisions in order to deal with a crisis (Sergent & Stajkovic, 2020; Hoobler, et al., 2018; Ryan, et al., 2016).
These results can be optimized by writers who create manuals of crisis management, not only for the educational environment but generally for different organisations. Also, these manuals could be included for the training of the executive directors as well as in hands-on workshops that address to principals for the showcase and the enhancement of those characteristics of their personality.
ReferencesBishop, P., Hines, A., & Collins, T. (2007). The current state of scenario development: an overview of techniques. Foresight, 9(1), 5-25.
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2008). Reframing organization: Artistry, choice and leadership (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Bundy, J., Pfarrer, D. M., Short, E.C., & Coombs W.T. (2017). Crises and Crisis Management: Integration, Interpretation, and Research Development. Journal of Management, 43(6), 1661-1692.
Cooper, T. (2007). Decision making in a crisis. Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations, 7(2), 5-28.
Hoobler, J. M., Masterson, C. R., Nkomo, S. M., & Michel, E. J. (2018). The business case for women leaders: Meta-analysis, research critique, and path forward. Journal of Management, 44(6), 2473–2499.
Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (2007). The leadership challenge (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Murawski, L. M. (2011). Leadership Traits, Tools, and Practices: Decision Making in a Crisis. (Doctoral Dissertation). Lincoln Memorial University, LMU Digital Commons.
Oplatka, I. (2004). The characteristics of the school organization and the constraints on market ideology in education: an institutional view. Journal of Educational Policy, 19(2), 143-161.
Ryan, M. K., Haslam, S. A., Morgenroth, T., Rink, F., Stoker, J., & Peters, K. (2016). Getting on top of the glass cliff: Reviewing a decade of evidence, explanations, and impact. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(3), 446–455.
Saiti, A., Saitis, Ch., & Gounaropoulos, G. (2008). Attitudes and perceptions of teachers on crisis management in Primary Education schools. 6th Panhellenic Conference, "Greek Pedagogy and Educational Research", Pedagogical Society of Greece (pp. 344 - 354). Athens: Trilianos A. & Karaminas I.
Seeger, M. (2006). Best practices in risk and crisis communication: An expert panel process. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 34(3), 232-244.
Sergent, K., & Stajkovic, A. D. (2020). Women’s Leadership is Associated with Fewer Death During the Covid 19 Crisis: Quantitative and Qualitative Analyses of United Stated Governors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105(8), 771–783.
26. Educational Leadership
Paper
How do Professional Gratification Crises affect the Health of School Leaders? Analysing the Relationship between the ERI Model and Burnout.
Nele Groß1, Kevin Dadaczynski2, Marcus Pietsch1
1Leuphana University Lueneburg, Germany; 2Hochschule Fulda
Presenting Author: Groß, Nele
In addition to physical health, mental health is an essential part of life. According to the World Health Organisation (2005), mental health is an essential dimension of a comprehensive understanding of health. Recent evidence suggests that mental stress and strain at work is a public health challenge that needs to be taken seriously. It is not only associated with high levels of suffering on the part of those affected, but also with a burden on the social system. As well as the obvious costs associated with absenteeism, there are also costs that are less obvious, such as presenteeism, lost productivity, problems associated with low levels of employee engagement and problems associated with a negative corporate culture (Iyarn, 2020).
This challenge is a national and global issue. For example, Bryan, Bryce & Roberts (2021) report from a longitudinal perspective that changing mental health has more than three times the effect on absenteeism as changing physical health in the UK. As well, comprehensive studies have been carried out for Germany. Based on an analysis of company absenteeism by the major statutory health insurers, the Federal Chamber of Psychotherapists (BPtK, 2018) concludes that the number of insured persons in Germany who were incapacitated by mental illness within one year increased from 3.3% to 5.5% between 2000 and 2017. Brandt (2021) supports these findings and reports that in Germany about 265 days of incapacity to work per 100 insured persons can be attributed to mental health problems. However, certain occupational groups appear to be at a higher risk of being reported to the employer as incapacitated due to mental illness.
Using data from the BIBB/IAB structural survey, Hasselhorn and Nübling (2004) were able to show that the risk of experiencing work-related psychological exhaustion is particularly high for teachers, comparing 67 occupational groups. Data from the BIBB/BAuA employment survey of 2006 and 2012 also point to a high level of mental exhaustion among teachers, although this level is just as high for members of other social professions (Cramer, Merk & Wesselborg, 2014). The results of a recent German study show that 45 per cent of the school principals and school board members surveyed find it difficult to relax at the end of the working day and a third of them often/always feel mentally exhausted (Dadaczynski, Okan & Messer, 2021).
In addition, studies by the Association of the Bavarian Economy [Vereinigung der Bayerischen Wirtschaft e.V.] (2021) show that educational staff are a particular risk group for mental illness and are particularly affected by the risk of burnout syndrome. As mentioned above, the symptoms of mental illnesses, such as the burnout syndrome, are manifested at the individual level, at the interpersonal level and at the institutional level. They are not only affective and cognitive, but also manifest themselves on a physiological level and affect the motivation and behaviour of those affected. This is why school leaders have a special role to play in their leadership function. Maslach and Leiter (2017) support this assumption, highlighting that employees working in the education system are at increased risk of burnout in terms of lower self-efficacy, emotional exhaustion and lower identification with work.
Empirical research on the mental health of school leaders is still in its infancy, although there is now considerable evidence on the mental health of teachers. Based on evidence-based knowledge, assumptions can be derived to fill the research gap. The aim of the scientific presentation is to answer the question of the extent to which an imbalance between one's own work commitment and the lack of compensation influences possible burnout.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe quantitative analyses will examine the relationship between the Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI) model, originally developed by Siegrist (1996a) as an explanatory approach for negative health effects of working conditions, and selected items from the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) (Maslach et al., 1996). The ERI model has been a useful tool for the analysis of work-related mental health conditions. The basic assumption of the model is based on the principle of social reciprocity. Occupational effort is part of a socially organised exchange, which is followed by occupational rewards. If there is an imbalance between the effort and the reward at work, this can lead to a crisis of job satisfaction with stress that promotes mental illness (Siegrist, 1996b). Research has shown that work stress, as measured by the ERI, is a good predictor of mental illnesses such as depression (Siegrist & Dragano, 2008).
A linear regression model will be successively built with the inclusion of further variables. The analysed data come from the study Leadership in German Schools (LineS2020), which was conducted at the Universities of Tübingen and Lüneburg and at the University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland. The sample, which is representative for Germany, included a total number of 405 randomly selected principals of general education schools. They were interviewed by means of an online questionnaire from September to November 2019 by forsa GmbH. In the analyses, the connection between the Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI) model as an explanatory approach for the negative effects of working conditions on health (example item: "When I think about all my achievements and efforts, I consider the recognition I receive to be appropriate") and Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) items, such as "Since becoming a principal, I have become more indifferent towards people". (Maslach, Jackson & Leiter, 1996).
Following the descriptive analyses, a multiple regression model will be successively built with the inclusion of further variables. This model will take into account further background characteristics such as age, gender and length of service in the school service. This is followed by confirmatory checks of the constructs (ERI and burnout syndrome) and correlation analyses in MPlus. Missing values are accounted for using full information maximum likelihood (FIML).
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsA total of 405 principals (female=55.8%; male=43.7%; diverse=0.5%) from schools in Germany were surveyed. Of the respondents, 11.6 % were aged between 30 and 44, 56 % were aged between 54 and 59 and just under a third were aged over 60. Of the schools that were administered, 92.3 per cent were state schools and 7.7 per cent were maintained schools. More than half of the schools (57.9 per cent) are primary schools. Grammar schools are represented in the sample by just under 15%, other secondary schools make up around a third. Just under 15% of headteachers answered in the affirmative when asked whether their school was located in a 'social hotspot'. Over half (52.8%) of respondents reported working between 41-51 hours in an average school week (including overtime), and over a quarter (28.1%) reported working more than 50 hours. Indicators of a high workload are both the type and location of the school and the working hours of the headteachers.
Preliminary analyses of the seven ERI items in a two-step analysis (Siegrist, Starke, Chandola, Godin, Marmot, Niedhammer & Peter, 2004) show that about a quarter of those surveyed perceive more reward than effort and are not threatened by a gratification crisis. However, perceiving more effort than reward, 73.3% of respondents are at risk. In 1.5% of participants, effort and reward were in equilibrium. There were no gender differences in the analysis of variance. An additional test for effort and reward did not show any differences between the sexes either. High factor loadings (>.63) were found for all three items in an exploratory factor analysis of the burnout scale.
ReferencesBrandt, M. (2021). Kranke Psyche: Höchststand bei Fehltagen im Jahr 2020. Access 15. September 2022 from https://de.statista.com/infografik/18813/krankschreibungen-wegen-psychischer-erkrankungen-in-deutschland/.
Bryan, M.E., Bryce, A.M., & Roberts, J. (2021). The effect of mental and physical health problems on sickness absence. The European Journal of Health Economics, 22, 1519–1533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-021-01379-w.
Bundes Psychotherapeuten Kammer (2018). Die längsten Fehlzeiten weiterhin durch psychische Erkrankungen. BPtK-Auswertung 2018 „Langfristige Entwicklung Arbeitsunfähigkeit“. https://www.bptk.de/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/20190523_pm_bptk_Die-la%CC%88ngsten-Fehlzeiten-weiterhin-durch-psychische-Erkrankungen.pdf.
Cramer, C., Merk, S., & Wesselborg, B. (2014). Psychische Erschöpfung von Lehrerinnen und Lehrern. Repräsentativer Berufsgruppenvergleich unter Kontrolle berufsspezifischer Merkmale. Lehrerbildung auf dem Prüfstand, 7, 138-156.
Dadaczynski, K., Okan, O., & Messer, M. (2021). Belastungen und Beanspruchungen von Schulleitungen während der Corona-Pandemie. Ergebnisse einer Online-Befragung in vier Bundesländern. Public Health Zentrum Fulda (PHZF) an der Hochschule Fulda, Interdisziplinäres Zentrum für Gesundheitskompetenzforschung (IZGK) an der Universität Bielefeld & Pflegewissenschaft II an der Universität Trier. https://doi.org/10.4119/unibi/2957528.
Hasselhorn, H.-M. & Nübling, M. (2004). Arbeitsbedingte psychische Erschöpfung bei Erwerbstätigen in Deutschland. Arbeitsmed. Sozialmed. Umweltmed., 39, 568-576.
Iyarn (2020). The Iceberg of Mental Health and Wellbeing: Challenges for Modern Workplaces. Access 31.01.2023 from https://iyarn.com/blog/iceberg-workplace-mental-heath-wellbeing/.
Maslach, C., Jackson, S. E., & Leiter, M. P. (1996). Maslach Burnout Inventory. Manual. Consulting Psychologists Press.
Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (2017). Understanding burnout. In: D. Cooper & J. Quick, J. (Eds.). The handbook of stress and health: a guide to research and practice (pp 36–56). Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/9781118993811.ch3.
Siegrist, J. (1996a). Adverse health effects of high-effort/low-reward conditions. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1(1), 27–41.
Siegrist, J. (1996b). Soziale Krisen und Gesundheit. Eine Theorie der Gesundheitsförderung am Beispiel von Herz-Kreislauf-Risiken im Erwerbsleben. Hogrefe.
Siegrist, J. & Dragano, N. (2008). Psychosoziale Belastungen und Erkrankungsrisiken im Erwerbsleben. Befunde aus internationalen Studien zum Anforderungs-Kontroll-Modell und zum Modell beruflicher Gratifikationskrisen. Bundesgesundheitsblatt-Gesundheitsforschung-Gesundheitsschutz, 51(3), 305–312.
Siegrist, J., Starke, D., Chandola, T., Godin, I., Marmot, M., Niedhammer, I., & Peter, R. (2004). The measurement of effort–reward imbalance at work: European comparisons. Social Science & Medicine, 58, 1483–1499.
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