09. Assessment, Evaluation, Testing and Measurement
Paper
How is Teacher Quality Allocated in Swedish Secondary Schools? Evidence from Longitudinal Register Data
Eun Jeong Lee, Stefan Johansson, Maria Jarl
University of Gothenburg, Sweden
Presenting Author: Lee, Eun Jeong
With the introduction of a mandatory teacher license in 2011, Sweden had an aim to raise teacher quality in Swedish schools (Jarl & Rönnberg, 2019). However, the increasing need for more teachers as well as difficulties to find adequate positions that matched teachers’ certification introduced challenges to fulfil that aim (Hansson and Gustafsson, 2016). The current study investigates how different measures of teacher quality developed in Sweden during the past decade, particularly focusing the distribution of teacher quality across disadvantaged and privileged schools.
The Swedish Education Act 2010 emphasizes equality in education. Pupils should be provided equal education opportunities in terms of access and resources to promote their academic success, and education should work compensatory for those with special needs and disadvantaged backgrounds (Holmlund et al., 2020). The idea of compensatory allocation of resources can be related to the opportunity to learn (OTL) model which address the essential inputs and processes within a school context for students to achieve intended outcomes (Elliott & Bartlett, 2016). While socioeconomic status (SES) has been shown to affect students’ achievement, there is a growing interest among scholars regarding what factors can compensate those with low achievements and disadvantaged home backgrounds (Nilsen et. al., 2020). One aspect of OTL framework may be the access to qualified teachers. However, students with low SES had been shown to have consistently less access to teachers with high qualifications than their more advantaged peers (Luschei & Jeong, 2018; Glassow & Jerrim, 2022).
In a Swedish context, Hansson and Gustafsson (2016) studied how teacher quality was distributed among Swedish schools using teacher and student register data between 1994 and 2011. The study showed a significant variation in the number of qualified teachers, with respect to the student-teacher ratio and the number of teachers whose teaching subjects were not matched with their teacher education among schools. While the schools whose students were eligible for mother tongue language learning, which indicated their immigration background, had a higher teacher density, they had a higher number of unqualified teachers, and teachers teaching subjects were more likely to be different from their subject specialization. The study also showed that teachers with high competence tended to work at schools where students had a high level of academic achievement, and which provided a higher salary and better working environment. Hansson and Gustafsson (2016) argued that results was influenced by decentralization and marketization reforms in 1991, which allowed municipalities and schools greater freedom employing teachers.
In 2011, another teacher education reform was introduced to increase the quality and specialization of teacher education. The reform divided the one common teacher education program of 2001 into separate programs for different subjects and age groups (Åstrand, 2017). In parallel, the reform introduced a teacher license, and the teacher education qualification requirement for employment has been stricter since then (Jarl & Rönnberg, 2019). What the results are of the policy intentions regarding increasing teacher quality and the need for more teachers has not been studied. An especially salient issue is how highly qualified teachers have been distributed across schools in the past decade regarding teacher qualification and subject specialization. Against this background, we stated the following research questions:
- What is the proportion of teachers with a teacher license during 2013-2020 in Swedish secondary schools?
- What proportion of teachers have a matched position, i.e., a teacher license relevant to the subjects and age groups they are educated for?
- Are any differences with respect to the proportion of teachers with a license and matching as regards the distribution across schools (school areas, school types, and student social background)?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThis study will obtain Swedish population data from the Teacher Register, and Student Register kept by Statistics Sweden. These data form part of the national follow-up system for the school sector run by the Swedish National Agency for Education to provide a comprehensive picture of educational activities and support for follow-up and evaluation at national and regional levels (Alatalo et al., 2021).
The data on teachers is conducted annually and includes school staff with educational duties (teachers, assistant teachers and other educational staff, leisure teachers, leisure instructors, school leaders, and study and career counselors) in the school forms covered by the National Agency's National Monitoring System. The data has been collected since the late 1970s, and the structure and variables of the register have changed over the years. In the present study, we obtain data from 2013-2020. One reason was that the teacher register was updated in 2013 with more precise data on teachers' positions. Another reason was that we focused on the effects of introducing a compulsory teacher license in 2011. The present study will use the information on teachers' certification levels, the degree of match between teachers' licenses and positions, and their teaching experience measured in years. The teacher register will also provide data on the school location (Cities, suburbs, and rural areas) and school type (public or private).
Student register data is also updated annually, and in the current study, we use student cohorts born between 1997 and 2004. Data include achievement data on subject grades and national tests in school year 9. It also holds information on the parental background and immigration background of each student. This information will allow us to study if formal teacher competence is equally distributed across schools, if the compensatory allocation of teacher resources is present, and whether the degree of matched positions will increase due to the teacher license demands.
Regrettably, there is no link between students and their teachers. However, it is possible to conduct longitudinal analyses of the teacher characteristics at the school level, taking student characteristics into account.
The analyses will mainly be carried out using descriptive statistics, using mean comparisons. Regression techniques such as growth curve modeling will also be considered where it is deemed appropriate. All data were derived from Statistics Sweden (SCB) and analyzed within the MONA (Microdata Online Access) system, which is Statistics Sweden's platform for access to microdata.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsResults show that about 85% of teachers in grade 9 have received teacher education, although more is needed to specify this specific age group and the subject they are teaching. Our preliminary analyses suggest that this general level of certification status tends to decrease over time. The more precise measure, the matching between teacher position (subjects taught) and their teacher license, shows that approximately 80% of the teachers are teaching in a subject and grade that they were actually educated for. Furthermore, there are some notable discrepancies across schools: The proportion of teachers with a license does not differ much across privileged and disadvantaged schools, although there are indications that the gap increases over time – disadvantaged schools being on a lower level. However, the degree of matching is about 5-10% lower in disadvantaged schools, indicating difficulties in attracting teachers with adequate specializations. Regarding school type, we noted that private schools have a lower share of certified teachers and a lower degree of matching throughout the period (about 65%). The matching is particularly low at private schools where the students have a lower parental background. The results suggest that there is no compensatory allocation of teacher resources in Sweden; instead, the trend points to the opposite. Further analyses will shed light on the teacher resources in different school locations and any differences for various school subjects.
ReferencesAlatalo, T., Hansson, &., & Johansson, S. (2021). Teachers' academic achievement: Evidence from Swedish longitudinal register data. European Journal of Teacher Education, Ahead-of-print(Ahead-of-print), 1-21.
Åstrand, B. (2017). Swedish teacher education and the issue of fragmentation: Conditions for the struggle over academic rigour and professional relevance. In Hudson, B. (Eds.), Overcoming fragmentation in teacher education policy and practice (pp.101-152). Cambridge education research series.
Elliott, Stephen N., & Brendan J. Bartlett. (2014, Mar.3). Opportunity to Learn. In Oxford Handbooks Editorial Board (Online Eds.), Oxford Handbook Topics in Psychology. Oxford Academic. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935291.013.70, accessed 30 Jan. 2023.
Glassow, L., & Jerrim, J. (2022). Is inequitable teacher sorting on the rise? Cross-national evidence from 20 years of TIMSS. Large-scale Assessments in Education, 10(1), 1-20.
Hansson, &., & Gustafsson, J. (2016). Pedagogisk segregation: Lärarkompetens i den svenska grundskolan ur ett likvärdighetsperspektiv. Pedagogisk Forskning I Sverige, 21(1-2), 56-78.
Holmlund, H., Sjögren, A., Öckert, B., & Sverige. (2020). Jämlikhet i möjligheter och utfall i den svenska skolan (Rapport 2020:7). Institutet för arbetsmarknads- och utbildningspolitisk utvärdering (IFAU).
Jarl, M., & Rönnberg, L. (2019). Skolpolitik : Från riksdagshus till klassrum (Tredje upplagan ed.).
Luschei, T. F., & Jeong, D. W. (2018). Is Teacher Sorting a Global Phenomenon? Cross-National Evidence on the Nature and Correlates of Teacher Quality Opportunity Gaps. Educational Researcher, 47(9), 556–576. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X18794401
Nilsen, T., Scherer, R., Gustafsson, J., Teig, N., & Kaarstein, H. (2020) Teachers’ role in enhancing equity – A multilevel structural equation modelling with mediated moderation in Frønes, T., Pettersen, A., Radisić, J., & Buchholtz, N. (edit). Equity, Equality and Diversity in the Nordic Model of Education. Cham: Springer International Publishing AG.
Scheerens, J., & Blömeke, S. (2016). Integrating teacher education effectiveness research into educational effectiveness models. Educational Research Review, 18, 70-87. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2016.03.002.
09. Assessment, Evaluation, Testing and Measurement
Paper
Cultural and Linguistic Diversity, Classroom Climate, Reading Achievement and Teacher Quality in Norwegian Elementary Classrooms: A Longitudinal Investigation
Jacqueline Michelle Peterson
University of Stavanger, Norway
Presenting Author: Peterson, Jacqueline Michelle
The cultural and linguistic diversity of classrooms continues to increase across OECD countries significantly and steadily (OECD, 2020). In addition to the ongoing achievement gap, it has also been found that students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds are experiencing lower levels of belongingness in schools (Cerna et al., 2021). This trend is concerning given that research has demonstrated students’ relatedness to be connected to students’ engagement, academic self-concept, motivation, willingness to seek help from peers, and academic achievement (Flook et al., 2005;Goodenow, 1993; Shim et al., 2013). In addition to individual characteristics, classroom composition has also been shown to affect the well-being and academic outcomes of students (Van Ewijk & Sleegers, 2010). However, results are mixed as to whether these compositional effects on academic achievement are positive (Cho, 2012; Rjosk, 2014) or negative (Van Ewijk & Sleegers, 2010; Rjosk et al., 2017). It is also unclear as to whether all students are affected similarly (Rjosk et al., 2017). Investigations into how culturally and linguistic class composition relates to students’ socioemotional outcomes have similarly produced inconclusive results (Thijs & Verkuten, 2014; Veerman et al., 2022).
It has on the one hand been theorized by Putnam’s (2007) constrict theory that the presence of cultural and linguistic diversity threatens social cohesion and increases social disorganization (Putnam, 2007). Yet, that belongingness appears to be a function of cultural and linguistic distance (Cerna et al., 2021) and orientation towards a majority norm reference group (Veerman et al., 2022) suggests that these in-group out group distinctions may not be so clear cut. Indeed, in a contrast to constrict theory, Allport’s (1954) intergroup contact theory suggests the mixing of various ethnic groups can serve to reduce prejudice and result in greater understanding and empathy among members of varying ethnic groups over time. The extent to which these positive outcomes are realized, however, may be conditional to Allport’s (1954) criteria that group members get adequate opportunity to know each other, share similar status position, are in a situation of collaboration, and are supported by the institution to which a person belongs. Applied to the context of education, both the teacher’s role, as well as a positive cooperative classroom climate, can be seen as central components of Allport’s (1954) criteria.
To assess the extent to which these theories hold within the context of Norwegian elementary classrooms, the present study aims to assess how classroom cultural and linguistic diversity relates to students’ perception of classroom climate and reading achievement over the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th grades and the role of teacher quality on these relations. In doing so, this study aims to address the inconclusiveness of research findings to date, to further expand our understand of these relations beyond the US to the Nordic context, and to contribute the limited body of longitudinal studies on these relations. Guided by Jennings & Greenburg’s Prosocial Classroom Model (2009) and drawing upon Deci & Ryan’s (1985) theory of self-determination, this study therefore aims to address the following research questions:
1) How does cultural and linguistic diversity in the classroom relate to students’ perceptions of classroom climate and reading comprehension over time in Norwegian elementary schools?
2) Does teacher quality moderate relations between classroom cultural and linguistic diversity and students’ perceptions of classroom climate over time?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe present study uses longitudinal multilevel structural equation modeling to conduct a secondary analysis of 2800 students nested within 150 classes from 150 schools in Southwestern Norway which comprised the control group from a larger RCT study (see Solheim at al., 2017). Measurements were carried out in June 2017, 2018, 2019 as students were completing their first, second, and third grades.
Cultural and Linguistic background of students : Drawing on Greenberg (1956)’s monolingual weighted method, parent’s reported country of birth was categorized, and weighted for its cultural and linguistic proximity to Norwegian based upon Levenshtein distances within the Indo-European languages tree (Serva & Petroni, 2008). This resulted in scale 0 of 11, where 0 = Norwegian, (1-10) = Indo-European language families, and (11) = Other Non-Indo-European language families (11). Parents’ scores were then averaged to derive a single cultural and linguistic background statistic for each student. Students’ scores were then aggregated and averaged to derive a cultural and linguistic diversity average for each class.
Classroom Climate was measured using an adapted version of Rauer & Schuck’s (2003) scale of emotional and social experience in school. Students rated seven items on a 4-point Likert scale from which a latent factor of classroom climate was then derived.
Reading Comprehension was assessed using The Norwegian version of Form 2 of the Neal analysis of Reading Ability (NARA; Neale, 1997). Students read a short text, responded to open-ended comprehension questions, and received a score of 0 = wrong and 1= right for each answer up to 32 possible points.
Data Analyses
The software Mplus (Version 8.8; Muthen & Muthen, 1998 – 2010) with the Maximum Likelihood Robust (MLR) estimator was used for all analyses. A doubly latent approach was first used to establish cross-level measurement invariance for classroom climate. Next, a measurement model was specified to establish measurement configural, measurement, and scalar invariance across the three-time waves. A structural multilevel multi-group model was then defined, with time was treated as a grouping variable. Students’ individual cultural and linguistic background was specified as a within class variable, and the aggregated cultural and linguistic diversity of the classroom as a between variable. Classroom climate was regressed on cultural and linguistic diversity at both levels. Thereafter, the paths between variables were constrained over subsequent models to test for differences in these relations across the measurement waves. Future models will include reading comprehension and teacher quality.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings The latent factor measurement model of classroom climate, specified as a doubly latent model with cross-level measurement invariance demonstrated acceptable model fit for each measurement wave. The time invariance measurement models of classroom climate also demonstrated good fit and were found to be partially invariant. The multilevel structural equation multigroup model also demonstrated excellent fit measures. (χ² = 650.216, df = 144, p < .05, [RMSEA] = .037, [CFI] = .935, [SRMR] within = .025, SRMR between = .043). This preliminary model revealed a negative relationship between class cultural and linguistic diversity and classroom climate across all three-time waves at the between levels. (Wave 1 β = -.480, p < .000, Wave 2 β = -.469, p < .000, Wave 3 β = -.472, p < .000) (Wave 1 R² =.23 p = .001, Wave 2 R² =.22 p = .001, Wave 3 R² = .223 p = .002). When these relations were constrained across measurement waves, no significant difference was observed between any of the three time points, suggesting the negative relationship holds relatively constant. No significant relations were found at the within level.
Future analyses will include SES as a covariate in the model, reading comprehension as an outcome and teacher quality will be assessed as a potential moderator. Though preliminary, the results point to potentially important insights for the Norwegian elementary context. The significant unchanging negative relation between class cultural and linguistic diversity and classroom climate suggests that the premises of constrict theory may hold true and emerge at an early onset. This is troubling as classroom climate has been shown to relate to a variety of student outcomes. Preliminary results suggest that teachers of culturally and linguistically diverse classrooms may need to take extra care to foster a collaborative classroom climate among peers of varying cultural and linguistic backgrounds.
ReferencesAllport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
Cerna, L., Brussino, O., & Mezzanotte, C. (2021). The resilience of students with an immigrant background. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/paper/e119e91a-en
Cho, R. M. (2012). Are there peer effects associated with having English Language Learner (ELL) classmates? Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K). Economics of Education Review, 31(5), 629-643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2012.04.006
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior (1st ed. 1985. ed.). Springer US : Imprint: Springer.
Flook, L., Repetti, R. L., & Ullman, J. B. (2005). Classroom Social Experiences as Predictors of Academic Performance. Developmental Psychology, 41(2), 319–327. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.2.319
Goodenow, C. (1993). Classroom belonging among early adolescent students: Relationships to motivation and achievement. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 13(1), 21–43.
Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). The Prosocial Classroom: Teacher Social and Emotional Competence in Relation to Student and Classroom Outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 491–525. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308325693
OECD (2020). International Migration Outlook 2020, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/ec98f531-en
Putnam, R.D. (2007), E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-first Century The 2006 Johan Skytte Prize Lecture. Scandinavian Political Studies, 30: 137-174. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9477.2007.00176.x
Rjosk, C., Richter, D., Hochweber, J., Lüdtke, O., Klieme, E., & Stanat, P. (2014). Socioeconomic and language minority classroom composition and individual reading achievement: The mediating role of instructional quality. Learning and Instruction, 32, 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.01.007
Rjosk, C., Richter, D., Lüdtke, O., & Eccles, J. S. (2017). Ethnic composition and heterogeneity in the classroom: Their measurement and relationship with student outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(8), 1188–1204. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000185
Shim, S. S., Kiefer, S. M., & Wang, C. (2013). Help Seeking Among Peers: The Role of Goal Structure and Peer Climate. The Journal of Educational Research, 106(4), 290–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2012.692733
Thijs, J., & Verkuyten, M. (2014). School ethnic diversity and students’ interethnic relations. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12032
Van Ewijk, R., & Sleegers, P. (2010). Peer ethnicity and achievement: A meta-analysis into the compositional effect. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 21(3), 237–265. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243451003612671
Veerman, G.-J. M., Heizmann, B., & Schachner, M. K. (2022). Conditions for cultural belonging among youth of immigrant descent in Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Comparative analysis of intergroup experiences and classroom contexts. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 45(16), 659–683. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2022.2136010
09. Assessment, Evaluation, Testing and Measurement
Paper
Teacher Qualifications And Teaching Quality Related To Changes In Matehmatics Achievement in TIMSS from 2015 To 2019
Trude Nilsen1, Hege Kaarstein2
1University of Oslo, Norway; 2University of Oslo, Norway
Presenting Author: Nilsen, Trude
The Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) study measures students’ competence based on the participating countries’ curricula. Changes in students’ TIMSS achievement over time within a country is hence of interest to educational policy and practice as they may be related to, or possibly could reflect, changes in contextual factors important for student learning.
In Norway, students’ performance in mathematics at grade 9 decreased from 2015 to 2019 as evidenced by TIMSS. Seeing how teachers’ competence and their instruction are the most proximal to students and key to their learning outcome (Baumert et al., 2010; Darling-Hammond, 2000; Klieme et al., 2009; Praetorius et al., 2018), the present study seeks to investigate whether changes in teacher variables may be related to changes in the students’ mathematics.
Teachers’ competence is shaped by their formal level of education, the degree to which they have subject specialization, and through participation in professional development (e.g. Desimone et al., 2013). Teacher competence has proven to be important for teaching quality and for the students’ learning outcome (e.g. Baumert et al., 2010; Jentsch & König, 2022): A competent teacher tends to provide high quality teaching.
Teaching quality reflects the teaching going on in the classroom (i.e. teachers’ behavior) (Praetorius et al., 2018). It is a broad concept including different dimensions that have been found to promote student learning (e.g. Pianta & Hamre, 2009). According to the framework of the Three Basic Dimensions (TBD) (Klieme et al., 2009; Praetorius et al., 2018), teaching quality includes the following three dimensions: 1) Classroom management, which is about arranging for effective learning in the classroom (e.g. managing noise and disruptions). 2) Supportive climate, in which the teacher for example shows interest in and respect for all students, gives (individual) feedback and helps connecting new topics to what has already been learned, and 3) Cognitive activation, which is about challenging the students cognitively (e.g. students are asked to reason, interpret, solve problems).
As the TBD framework captures the main aspects of teaching quality, is extensively used in Europe and in the TIMSS contextual framework (Senden, Nilsen, & Blömeke, 2021; Mullis et al., 2020; Pianta & Hamre, 2009), it is used as the theoretical background for teacher quality in this study.
However, the quality of the teaching also depends on who is taught, on the background and composition of students (Praetorius et al., 2018). The quality of the teaching may be limited by students who for instance lack basic previous knowledge, who are uninterested, or lack basic language skills.
Knowing how important teachers and their teaching are to student learning, it is plausible that changes in teacher competence, their teaching quality and limitations to teaching quality, may be related to changes in student outcome. This study hence seeks to answer the following two research questions:
1. How have teacher competence, teaching quality and limitations to teaching quality changed from 2015 to 2019?
2. What is the relation between the changes in the predictors (i.e. teacher competence, teaching quality and limitations to teaching quality) and the changes in students’ mathematics achievement from 2015 to 2019? In other words, do changes in the predictors mediate the changes in students’ mathematics performance over time?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe present study includes representative samples of Norwegian grade nine students who participated in TIMSS 2015 and TIMSS 2019 along with their mathematics teachers (Nstudents=9272, Nteachers=516). Only measures identical in the two cycles were included in the study.
The following variables from the teacher questionnaire were used to measure teachers’ competence: teachers’ highest formal educational level, teachers’ subject specialization (major in mathematics and/or in mathematics education), and teachers’ participation in professional development.
For teaching quality, only two of the three dimensions were included (supportive climate and cognitive activation) as classroom management was not included in both cycles. We used the student questionnaire to measure supportive climate (5 items, e.g. “My teacher is easy to understand”), and the teacher questionnaire to measure cognitive activation (6 items, e.g. “Ask students to explain their answers”).
Limitations to teaching, was measured by teacher responses (6 items, e.g. “Students lacking prerequisite knowledge”).
Methods of analysis
Data from 2015 was merged with data from 2019, adding a dummy variable labelled Time (coded 0=2015 and 1= 2019). Then Mplus version 8 was used to estimate a two-level (students and classes) mediation structural equation model (SEM) with trend data (Murnane & Willett, 2010).
The TIMSS 2019 report showed that the Norwegian grade nine students’ achievement in mathematics had declined by 9 points since the 2015 study (Mullis et al., 2020). Consequently, the unstandardized regression coefficient of the effect of Time on achievement is expected to be negative and approximately 9 points. Our question is whether the predictors (i.e., the change in teacher competence, teaching quality and limitations to teaching quality) may mediate this decline.
Using teaching quality as an example, the hypothesis is that if teaching quality has declined over time, and if teaching quality has a positive effect on achievement, it may partly mediate the effect of Time on Achievement. The mediation coefficient (the indirect effect) would be negative, thus teaching quality could be said to partly “explain” (albeit, not causally) the decline in achievement. Teaching quality would then mediate part of the decline in achievement over time.
Alternatively, if teaching quality has increased over time, and is positively related to achievement, the result would be a positive mediation (indirect effect). As a consequence of a positive indirect effect, one might possibly claim that the higher teaching quality “prevented” an even larger decline.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsResults.
Regarding research question 1, the results showed that no changes were found for teachers’ specialization and professional development. Teachers’ formal level of education, supportive climate and cognitive activation increased from 2015 to 2019. Lastly, the teachers reported about a higher level of limitations to teaching in 2019 than in 2015.
The results for the second research question showed significant, positive relations from teachers’ formal level of education, supportive climate, and limitations to teaching to student achievement.
However, only the increase in teachers’ level of formal education and supportive climate each had a positive indirect effect on achievement and mediated 1.5 and 2.3 points of the 9 points decline in achievement respectively. The higher level of limitations to teaching had a negative indirect effect and mediated about 6 of the 9 points of the decline.
Discussion and conclusion.
The incline in teachers’ level of education and teaching quality could be a result of extensive strategies implemented in Norway during the last decade, aiming to increase teachers’ competence in teaching mathematics (e.g. Ministry of Education and Research, 2015). The positive indirect effect could hence indicate a prevention of an even larger decline.
The limitations to teaching, on the other hand, had a negative indirect effect, which indicates a contribution to the decline. Increased limitations to the instruction over time reflects challenges with the students who e.g. don’t speak the language, who are hungry at school and lack sleep, and who lack prerequisite knowledge. Our findings on this are in line with other studies (e.g. Wedelborg et al., 2020).
The present study may contribute to the field with regards to the methodology which is robust and useful for identifying relations between changes in predictors and changes in achievement. It further contributes to practice and policy.
ReferencesBaumert, J., Kunter, M., Blum, W., Brunner, M., et al. (2010). Teachers’ Mathematical Knowledge, Cognitive Activation in the Classroom, and Student Progress. American Educational Research Journal, 47(1), 133-180.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher Quality and Student Achievement: A Review of State Policy Evidence. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1).
Desimone, L. M., Smith, T. M., & Phillips, K. J. R. (2013). Linking Student Achievement Growth to Professional Development Participation and Changes in Instruction: A Longitudinal Study of Elementary Students and Teachers in Title I Schools. Teachers College Record, 115(5), 1-46.
Gustafsson, J.-E. (2013). Causal inference in educational effectiveness research: a comparison of three methods to investigate effects of homework on student achievement. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 24(3), 275-295.
Jentsch, A., & König, J. (2022). Teacher Competence and Professional Development. In T. Nilsen, A. Stancel-Piątak, & J.-E. Gustafsson (Eds.), International Handbook of Comparative Large-Scale Studies in Education: Perspectives, Methods and Findings (pp. 1167-1183). Springer International Publishing.
Klieme, E., Pauli, C., & Reusser, K. (2009). The Pythagoras Study: Investigating Effects of Teaching and Learning in Swiss and German Mathematics Classrooms. In J. Tomáš & T. Seidel (Eds.), The Power of Video Studies in Investigating Teaching and Learning in the Classroom (pp. 137-160). Waxmann Verlag.
Ministry of Education and Research. (2015). Competence for Quality. Strategy for professional development for teachers and school leaders towards 2025. Oslo: Ministry of Education and Research
Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Foy, P., Kelly, D. L., & Fishbein, B. (2020). TIMSS 2019 International Results in Mathematics and Science. Boston College, TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center. https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/international-results/
Murnane, R. J., & Willett, J. B. (2010). Methods matter: Improving causal inference in educational and social science research. Oxford University Press.
Pianta, R. C., & Hamre, B. K. (2009). Conceptualization, Measurement, and Improvement of Classroom Processes: Standardized Observation Can Leverage Capacity. Educational Researcher, 38(2), 109-119.
Praetorius, A. K., Klieme, E., Herbert, B., & Pinger, P. (2018). Generic dimensions of teaching quality: the German framework of Three Basic Dimensions. ZDM, 50(3), 407-426.
Senden, B., Nilsen, T., & Blömeke, S. (2021). Instructional Quality: A Review of Conceptualizations, Measurement Approaches, and Research Findings. In M. Blikstad-Balas, K. Klette, & M. Tengberg (Red.), Ways of Analyzing Teaching Quality (pp. 140-172). Scandinavian University Press.
Wendelborg, C., Dahl, T., Røe, M., & Buland, T. (2020). The Student Survey 2019 [Elevundersøkelsen 2019]. NTNU Samfunnsforskning.
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