16. ICT in Education and Training
Paper
Exploring the Sociotechnical Imaginary of Professional Digital Competence: Unpacking ‘the Problem’ with Teachers
Erik Straume Bussesund
OsloMet - Oslo Metropolitan University, Norway
Presenting Author: Bussesund, Erik Straume
The use of technology in education has been a topic of interest for policymakers for many years, as is alleged to have significantly benefits for the learning experience for students. With the rapid implementation of digital technology in education in recent years, there has been a focus on the role of teacher qualifications in preparing students for a digital society and utilise the potential of a datafyed and digitised education system. The teacher is commonly portrayed to play a critical role in integrating technology into classroom and ensuring that students can effectively use it to learn and acquire new skills.
The focus has been on providing teachers with the necessary training and professional development to effectively integrate technology into their teaching practice. A common means of achieving such qualifications is the development of teachers’ professional digital competence often presented as qualification framework. While the incorporation of technology in education and the professional development of teachers is often presented as a depoliticized and objective improvement project, this paper critically analyses the conception of a digitally competent teacher as constructed in this policy. It argues that the conceptualization of a digitally competent teacher is not a neutral, apolitical construct, but rather one that is shaped by the political, economic, and social context in which it is developed. The study examines the ways in which the problematisation of teachers need for digitally competent is used to justify certain policy decisions and how the definition of digital competency is used to shape the role of teachers. By taking a critical perspective, this study aims to uncover the veiled power dynamics and potential consequences of these policies on teachers and the education system.
This paper conducts a critical analysis of the Norwegian Professional Digital Competence Framework for Teachers (the ‘PDC framework’) using Bacchi's (2009) ‘What's the problem represented to be?’ approach. The WPR approach involves analysing policy documents to uncover the underlying assumptions and policy imagination that shape the problem representation and subsequent solutions proposed in the document. In this case, the analysis aims to uncover the assumptions and representations of digital competency for teachers as constructed in the PDC framework, and the potential consequences of these representations on the role of teachers and the education system in Norway. The paper's focus is on the PDC framework as it is a governing the development and implementation of technology in education and the professional development of teachers in Norway.
This paper argues that the PDC framework is used as a policy instrument to stabilize and legitimize the use of digital technologies in the classroom. The PDC framework is informed by a sociotechnical imaginary that digital technology is the driving force for pedagogical development and that teachers are deficient when facing a digitized education. The paper discusses the potential consequences of the PDC framework on the role of teachers and the education system in Norway. Specifically, it argues that the PDC framework may lead to an unintended process of de-professionalization, in which teachers' autonomy is weakened. This is because the framework reinforces the idea that digital technology having inherent powers that teacher needs to use in the classroom, and that they need to be trained and regulated to do so. As a result, teachers may be less able to exercise autonomy and make decisions about how to use technology to support student learning, ultimately weakening their professional status.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe purpose of a WPR analysis is to critically scrutinise governmental problematisations by examining taken-for-granted ‘truths’ and analysing policy assumptions (Bacchi, 2012), in this case the Norwegian qualification framework for teachers PDC. The analysis is based on the notion that policies do not respond to problems; rather, problems are ‘created’ through the very policies that purport to ‘solve’ them (Bacchi, 2000, p. 48). This leaves researchers the task to ‘determine’ the problem representation from the proposed solution (Bacchi & Goodwin, 2018). Policy’s problematise and shape subjects and influence.
The aim of the WPR analysis is to understand which conditions and assumptions are necessary for the PDC. The WPR method involves studying how problems are questioned, analysed, classified and regulated at specific times and under specific circumstances (Bacchi, 2012). We use problem representations as a springboard to analyse what visions of teacher work and schooling that underpin current digitalisation policy in Norway. In that regard we focus on the PDC framework as it is illustrative of wider trend of constructing qualification framework for education as a policy tool (Young & Allais, 2016) and a focus on teacher competency with regard to successful digitalisation of education (McGarr & McDonagh, 2019; Spante et al., 2018). The analysis of the PDC framework is based on Bacchi and Goodwins (2018 p 42) six analytical questions:
We use these six questions to analyse the underlying problem representation of the PDC framework. The first question is a clarifying exercise to identify the problem representation within a given policy. The second question is to uncover the conceptual logics or discourses behind the problem representation. The third question reveals the conditions or contexts that enable the problem representation to form and influence. The fourth question highlights the issues and perspectives that are silenced in the dominant discourse, while the fifth question identifies the effects of the problem representation. The sixth question focuses on the public policy debate or discourse and how the present representation can be challenged. According to Bacchi and Goodwin, the questions does not follow in a sequential analytical order, or that all the questions should be a part of the analysis. In this paper, we will focus on the first three questions to analyse the underlying values framing the problem that the PDC framework is meant to solve, followed by discussing what effects are produced by the problem representation.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsDigital technology is portrayed as engaging, promoting democracy, and qualifying students for the knowledge economy. This should be understood as a sociotechnical imaginary that produces distinct subjects, spaces, and objects. In our analysis, we focused on how teachers’ professionalism is reimagined in the face of this sociotechnical imaginary that emphasises competitive and learning advantages in the face of an uncertain future. The framework seeks to solve the issues emerging in the digitalisation of the education system by prescrib-ing the knowledge, skills and competence that teachers are apparently lacking.
At first glance, the purpose of the PDC framework is to serve as a guideline for fostering teachers’ professional development and digital competence. It ends up problematising teachers’ competence based on the assumed benefits of digital technology. Based on our reading of the problem representation of the PDC framework, professional development becomes a matter of technical compliance. This way of framing teachers as lacking competency ends up de-professionalising the teacher profession (Evetts, 2013; Gore et al., 2022; McGarr et al., 2022). Teachers are made responsible to deliver on the promises of a digital educational system.
Given the level of policy borrowing and international convergence in this arena, it is reasonable to assume that similar findings can be found in other qualifications frameworks and policies concerning teacher qualification. Our analysis shows the use of qualification frameworks a tool that frames teachers as deficient and need of upskilling, there in producing an image of teachers lagging the demands of the future. There by delegitimising professional autonomy in favour accountability, measurement and educational effectiveness threw up-skilling.
ReferencesBacchi, C. (2000). Policy as discourse: What does it mean? Where does it get us? Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 21(1), 45–57.
Bacchi, C. (2012). Why study problematizations? Making politics visible. Open Journal of Political Science, 2(01), 1.
Bacchi, C., & Goodwin, S. (2018). Poststructural Policy Analysis: A Guide to Practice. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US.
Evetts, J. (2013). Professionalism: Value and ideology. Current Sociology, 61(5–6), 778–796.
Gore, J., Rickards, B., & Fray, L. (2022). From performative to professional accountability: Re-imagining ‘the field of judgment’ through teacher professional development. Journal of Education Policy, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680939.2022.2080274
McGarr, O., & McDonagh, A. (2019). Digital Competence in Teacher Education. Output 1 of the Erasmus + funded Developing Student Teachers’ Digital Competence (DICTE) project. (No. 1). https://ulir.ul.ie/handle/10344/7700
McGarr, O., Passy, R., Murray, J., & Liu, H. (2022). Continuity, change and challenge: Unearthing the (fr)agility of teacher education. Journal of Education for Teaching, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2022.2100249
Spante, M., Hashemi, S. S., Lundin, M., & Algers, A. (2018). Digital competence and digital literacy in higher education research: Systematic review of concept use. Cogent Education, 5(1), 1–1. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2018.1519143
Young, M., & Allais, S. M. (2016). Implementing national qualifications frameworks across five continents. Routledge.
16. ICT in Education and Training
Paper
Training in the Use of Digital Media of Teachers in Schools with Special Difficulties
Ana Cristina Blasco-Serrano, Natalia Sobradiel Sierra
Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain
Presenting Author: Blasco-Serrano, Ana Cristina
Today's society has experimented major changes due to the incorporation of digital technology into everyday life, especially in recent times, and schools have not remained oblivious to these changes (Barberá-Gregori and Suárez-Guerrero, 2021; Zhao et al., 2021). The inclusion of technological media does not replace non-digital media, but they can be a great complement to teaching strategies. In this framework, the inclusion of digital technology in initial teacher education is necessary (Delgado-García and Toscano, 2021). In addition, senior teachers need to renew their teaching practices to incorporate digital media, in an integral way, in the teaching/learning processes (Barberá-Gregori and Suárez-Guerrero, 2021; Cabero-Almenara and Palacios, 2020; Gudmundsdottir and Hatlevik, 2018). The DigCompEdu Report (Redecker, 2017) is the scientific reference framework guiding education and training policies in European Union countries.
In this context, the use of digital media is considered from a didactic-pedagogical perspective and in a professional educational context (Cabero-Almenara and Palacios, 2020) rather than from a technological point of view. So, teachers who are not proficient in ICT are at a disadvantage in many learning situations and areas compared to those who are, and there is a mismatch between teacher and student (Arenas, 2016). Being competent in the use of technology as a medium for the teaching/learning process entails a critical attitude in didactic planning and in the selection of digital resources in accordance with the context and the characteristics and needs of the students. It is necessary to focus on how the cultural, affective and spiritual aspects of individuals and groups interact with digital technology (Castañeda and Selwyn, 2018). Schools have to face the challenge of teaching in a society that is changing at dizzying speeds and, therefore, can no longer or should no longer reproduce the teaching practices of previous years and decades (Cabero-Almenara and Valencia-Ortiz, 2019; Engen, 2019). In this sense, digital technology makes it possible to address classroom diversity from an inclusive perspective, considering the different paces and levels of curricular competence of all students, enabling new learning scenarios and different opportunities for interaction (Cámara et al., 2017).
The inclusion of ICT in classrooms and educational centres implies that students are the protagonists of their development and learning process, which may sometimes require changes in attitudes and roles between teachers and students (Méndez and Delgado, 2016). Along the same lines, changes are necessary in relation to the didactic planning of the classroom and the organisation of the centre (Méndez and Delgado, 2016) from a critical perspective, reflecting on the why of the changes, why, how, how, who, where and when. In other words, the use of digital technology in the teaching-learning process implies a deep reflection on the teaching practice itself, as well as the context, culture and resources of the centre, promoting participation and interaction between students and teachers, without forgetting the families and the educational community (Méndez and Delgado, 2016; Vigo-Arrazola and Dieste-Gracia, 2019).
The general objective of our study is to find out about the training in the use of digital media of teachers in schools with special difficulties.
The specific objectives are:
-
To identify who organises the training received on digital media.
-
To describe the main thematic cores addressed in this training.
-
To find out the teachers' assessment of the training resources used to develop their educational practices with digital media.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThis paper focuses on the first phase of a R+D+i research project "Challenging stigma. Creative and inclusive discourses and practices with digital media in schools of 'special complexity' (DesEi) (PID2020-112880RB-I00)", developed in Spain.This first phase is descriptive and transversal, from a quantitative methodological perspective.
An ad hoc questionnaire was designed to collect information, validated by experts in creative practices and digital media. The first part of the questionnaire collects the socio-demographic data of the respondents. The data is anonymous, respecting the ethical and data protection aspects of the participants. The second part of the questionnaire sets out a series of questions concerning four basic dimensions related to digital media: 1) the school and its resources, 2) the digital competence of teachers, 3) the organisation of the school, and 4) the teaching and learning processes.
The questionnaire was sent to schools considered to have special difficulties in all the Spanish regions, and we received replies from 126 of them. Thus, 212 pre-school and primary school teachers from schools categorised as particularly difficult throughout Spain took part in the study. The sampling carried out is incidental. 75.9% of the teachers were female, 21.2% were male and 2.8% preferred not to report this information. 6.6% (14) are between 20-30 years old, 26% (55) between 31-40 years old, 42% (89) between 41-50 years old, 22.6% (48) between 51-60 years old and 2.8% (6) are over 60 years old.
In terms of years of teaching experience 21.7% (46) had between 1-9 years, 37.3% (79) between 10-19 years, 28.7% (61) between 20-29 years and 12.3% (26) more than 30 years.
The participating teachers belong to cities with more than 10,000 inhabitants (40.6%), municipalities between 2000 and 10,000 (16.5%) and localities with less than 2000 inhabitants (42.9%).
Finally, for the statistical analysis, frequencies have been used to describe the qualitative variables of the study. The chi-square test and Spearman's correlation test were used to test the statistical significance of the relationship between variables. Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 26.0.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsFindings inform 96.3% of teachers have participated in training activities in relation to digital competence: 81.5% have received it at Teacher Training Centres and 56.9% at their own school. University is little considered as a training center (6%). This reinforces the importance of both initial and lifelong learning (Gudmundsdottir and Hatlevik, 2018).
Respecting the core themes of the training, the most common are the use of digital media as a communication tool (68.8%), for the creation, search and modification of curricular content (56%) and as a tool for management and organization (57.8%). Only 39% of teachers have received training to improve inclusion, and 31.2% to encourage students to make creative use of digital media. Just 36.2% of teachers have received training in use of digital technologies to improve assessment throughout the teaching-learning process. Thus, the importance of reflecting on one's own educational practice for inclusion and participation highlight (Méndez and Delgado, 2016).
There is a significant relationship between gender and some thematic cores. Women have received more training in communication (ꭓ2=9.513; p<0.01), however, men receive more training about curriculum content creation (ꭓ2=9.362; p<0.01) and evaluation (ꭓ2=7.611; p<0.05).
Years of teaching experience show a negative correlation with some place of training, with school itself (-0.195; p=0.01) and at teacher training center (-0.186; p=0.01). We could conclude that teachers with more professional experience have had little training after university related to digital media. On the contrary, teachers with less teaching experience have been trained after initial training. This reinforces the need of inclusion of digital technology in initial teacher education (Delgado-García and Toscano, 2021) and the need of renewal of teaching practices to incorporate digital media (Barberá-Gregori and Suárez-Guerrero, 2021).
ReferencesArenas, C. (2017). ICT as pedagogical resources for an inclusive professor. Revista de Educación Inclusiva, 9(2). https://revistaeducacioninclusiva.es/index.php/REI/article/viewFile/53/48
Barberà-Gregori, E. & Suárez-Guerrero (2021). Assessing Online Learning and the Digitalization of Assessment. RIED. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación, 24(2), 33-40. https://doi.org/10.5944/ried.24.2.30289
Cabero-Almenara, J. & Valencia-Ortiz, R. (2019). ITC for inclusion: a look from Latin America. Aula Abierta, 48(2), 139-146. https://doi.org/10.17811/rifie.48.2.2019.139-146
Cabero-Almenara, J. & Palacios-Rodríguez, A. (2020). Marco Europeo de Competencia Digital Docente «DigCompEdu». Traducción y adaptación del cuestionario «DigCompEdu Check-In». EDMETIC, 9(1), 213-234. https://doi.org/10.21071/edmetic.v9i1.12462
Cámara, Á.M., Díaz, Elena M. y Ortega-Tudela, J.M. (2017). Aprendizaje-Servicio en la universidad: ayudando a la escuela a atender a la diversidad a través de las TIC. Bordón, 69 (3), 73-87, DOI: 10.13042/Bordon.2017.51320
Castañeda, L. & Selwyn, N. (2018). More than tools? Making sense of the ongoing digitizations of higher education. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 15, 22, https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-018-0109-y
Delgado-García, M. & Toscano, M.O. (2021). Construcción de la identidad profesional del futuro docente de Secundaria. Profesorado, Revista De Currículum Y Formación Del Profesorado, 25(1), 109-130. https://doi.org/10.30827/profesorado.v25i1.8372
Engen, B.K. (2019). Comprendiendo los aspectos culturales y sociales de las competencias digitales docentes. Comunicar: Revista científica iberoamericana de comunicación y educación, 61, 9-19.
Gudmundsdottir, G.B., & Hatlevik, O.E. (2018). Newly qualified teachers’ professional digital competence: implications for teacher education. European Journal of Teacher Education, 41(2), 214-231. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2017.1416085
Méndez, J.M., & Delgado, M. (2016). Las TIC en centros de Educación Primaria y Secundaria de Andalucía. Un estudio de casos a partir de buenas prácticas. Digital Education Review, 134-165. https://doi.org/10.1344/der.2016.29.134-165
Redecker, C. & Punie, Y. (2017). Digital Competence of Educators: DigCompEdu. European Union. http://bit.ly/39yohbE
Vigo-Arrazola, B. y Dieste-Gracia, B. (2019). Building virtual interaction spaces between family and school. Ethnography and Education, 14(2), 206-222. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457823.2018.1431950
Zhao, Y., Pinto, A.M., & Sánchez, M.C. (2021). Digital competence in higher education research: A systematic literature review, Computers & Education, 168, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104212
16. ICT in Education and Training
Paper
ICT Use In Classes And Professional Development Needs In Primary Schools
Ed Smeets
KBA Nijmegen, Netherlands, The
Presenting Author: Smeets, Ed
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) may fit into a spectrum of instructional approaches. There is an ongoing debate about pedagogical practices that provide an optimum basis for learning. Many educationalists have been promoting learner-centred learning environments which stimulate pupils to engage in active knowledge construction (Jonassen et al., 1999). Others have challenged this constructivist approach by pointing out that guided instruction is much more efficient and effective (Kirschner et al., 2006). Klahr and Nigam (2004) found that many more young children learned from direct instruction than from discovery learning. Cronjé (2006) and Aylward and Cronjé (2022) argued that constructivist approaches and behaviourist approaches to teaching and learning should not be regarded as opposite to each other, but should be considered as two dimensions that should be plotted as orthogonal, resulting in a four-quadrant matrix of learning paradigms. Apart from these paradigms, other topics are of interest with regard to the use of ICT in education, e.g. addressing ICT literacy (Wu et al., 2022), and the use of ICT in assessment.
At the teacher level, the teacher’s pedagogical competences are a significant predictor of the teacher’s use of ICT in education (Liu et al., 2017; Petko, 2012; Suárez-Rodríguez et al., 2018). Cheng et al. (2021) found that teachers’ competence beliefs moderated the effect of traditional pedagogical beliefs on technology integration.
Studies have shown that significant differences between schools may arise with respect to the nature and frequency of ICT use. Vanderlinde et al. (2014) found that 14 percent of the variance in ICT use by teachers was due to differences between schools, and pointed at teachers’ ICT competences, teachers’ developmental educational beliefs, ICT professional development, and the school’s ICT vision and policy as relevant factors at the school level. Inan and Lowther (2010) concluded that ICT integration by teachers is a complex process that is influenced by teacher characteristics as well as by the teachers’ perception of the school environment. Teachers’ beliefs and readiness appeared to be positively affected by three school-level factors: the availability of computers, technical support, and overall support. Chou et al. (2019) concluded that an organisation’s innovation climate is significantly related with innovative teaching using ICT. Eickelmann (2011) found that the role of the principal is crucial in schools that are successful in implementing ICT.
The focus of the present study is on ICT-related pedagogical practices in primary schools, on factors that influence these practices, on the expected future use of ICT in classes and on professional development needs, as perceived by teachers. In addition, school level factors are addressed. The research questions are as follows:
1) What types of ICT-related pedagogical practices are applied by teachers in primary schools?
2) What factors at the teacher level are linked to a high frequency of ICT use in classes?
3) What factors at the school level are linked to a high frequency of ICT use in classes?
4) What do teachers expect with respect to their future use of ICT in classes?
5) What are teachers’ professional development needs in order to be ready for future ICT use?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedWeb surveys were administered to teachers and to school leaders in The Netherlands. A call for participation was placed on the website of an organisation that supports school boards in primary education and on the website of a foundation that promotes and supports the use of ICT in education. School boards and schools were promised school-specific feedback if they participated in the study. School leaders were provided with school-specific web links to the surveys. The two datasets consist of survey data from 1542 teachers from 322 schools and 357 school leaders. In addition, a joint dataset was created in order to carry out multilevel analyses.
Likert scales were applied and factor analyses and reliability analyses were carried out in order to obtain reliable scale variables. Cronbach Alpha scores of all scales were sufficient, with ranges between .72 and .94 at the teacher level and between .67 and .92 at the school level.
In the teacher survey the following topics were addressed:
- background variables
- type and frequency of present and future ICT use in classes: 10 scales
- self-rating of ICT-related competences: 2 scales
- preconditions with respect to ICT use at school: 1 scale
- professional development needs with respect to future ICT use
With respect to the type and frequency of ICT use the following scales were constructed: Teacher directed ICT use, Learner centred ICT use, Preparing students for living and learning in a digital era, Use of digital learning materials, and Testing and assessment with ICT. In addition a ICT use index score was calculated with a potential range from 0 to 100. Based on the scores of the present use index, all teachers were attributed to a quartile.
In order to gain insight into the professional development needed to prepare teachers for the future, the discrepancy between the reported present use of ICT in classes and the expected future use was calculated in real time for all single items. Before completing the questionnaire, the teachers were presented with the 10 items that showed the largest discrepancies. Subsequently, they were asked whether they would need professional development regarding those specific ICT-related teaching activities.
Variables in the school leader survey included some background variables and several scale variables: the scales regarding present and expected future use of ICT, the school leaders’ views on the ICT-related competences of the teachers, and their views on the preconditions with respect to ICT use at school.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsOverall, focus was on teacher directed ICT-related activities, and less on learner centred activities. This applies to teachers in all quartiles. There was a fair amount of attention for preparing students for living and learning in a digital era. The teachers’ self-rated ICT-related pedagogical competences accounted for 39% of the explained variance in the index of present ICT-use in classes. Differences between schools accounted for 21% variance.
Based on teachers’ expectations the conclusion can be drawn that differences between teachers in the intensity of ICT use in classes will decrease in future. Teachers in the lower quartiles expected a larger increase than teachers in the higher quartiles. There were differences between teachers from different quartiles with respect to professional development needed to prepare them for future ICT use in education.
At the conference, more detailed outcomes will be presented, including outcomes of the multilevel analyses. Implications for school policy on ICT use in education and for teacher professional development will be discussed.
ReferencesAylward, R. C., & Cronjé, J. C. (2022). Paradigms extended: how to integrate behaviorism, constructivism, knowledge domain, and learner mastery in instructional design. Educational technology research and development, 70(2), 503-529.
Cheng, S. L., Chen, S. B., & Chang, J. C. (2021). Examining the multiplicative relationships between teachers’ competence, value and pedagogical beliefs about technology integration. British Journal of Educational Technology, 52(2), 734-750.
Chou, C. M., Shen, C. H., Hsiao, H. C., & Shen, T. C. (2019). Factors influencing teachers’ innovative teaching behaviour with information and communication technology (ICT): The mediator role of organisational innovation climate. Educational Psychology, 39(1), 65-85.
Cronjé, J. (2006). Paradigms regained: Toward integrating objectivism and constructivism in instructional design and the learning sciences. Educational technology research and development, 387-416.
Eickelmann, B. (2011). Supportive and hindering factors to a sustainable implementation of ICT in schools. Journal of Educational Research Online, 3, 75-103.
Inan, F.A., & Lowther, D.L. (2010). Factors affecting technology integration in K-12 classrooms: a path model. Educational Technology Research and Development, 58, 137–154.
Jonassen, D.H., Peck, K.L., & Wilson, B.G. (1999). Learning with technology: a constructivist perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Liu, F., Ritzhaupt, A. D., Dawson, K., & Barron, A. E. (2017). Explaining technology integration in K-12 classrooms: A multilevel path analysis model. Educational Technology Research and Development,
65(4), 795–813.
Kirschner, P.A., Sweller, J., and Clark, R.E. (2006). Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41, 75-86.
Klahr, D., & Nigam, M. (2004). The equivalence of learning paths in early science instruction: Effects of direct instruction and discovery learning. Psychological Science, 15, 661–667.
Petko, D. (2012). Teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and their use of digital media in classrooms: Sharpening the focus of the ‘will, skill, tool’ model and integrating teachers’ constructivist orientations. Computers & Education, 58(4), 1351-1359.
Suárez-Rodríguez, J., Almerich, G., Orellana, N., & Díaz-García, I. (2018). A basic model of integration of ICT by teachers: competence and use. Educational technology research and development, 66, 1165-1187.
Vanderlinde, R., Aesaert, K., & Van Braak, J. (2014). Institutionalised ICT use in primary education: A multilevel analysis. Computers & Education, 72, 1-10.
Wu, D., Zhou, C., Li, Y., & Chen, M. (2022). Factors associated with teachers' competence to develop students’ information literacy: A multilevel approach. Computers & Education, 176, 104360.
|
