31. LEd – Network on Language and Education
Poster
Systematic Review of Returns on Immigrant Care Workers’ Multilingual Competence on the Labor Market
Kseniia Pershina
University of Hamburg, Germany
Presenting Author: Pershina, Kseniia
The current study represents the results of the Systematic Review on returns on immigrant caregivers’ multilingual competence and aims to integrate the human capital theory perspective regarding multilingual competence in the healthcare sector. The purpose of this Systematic Review is to investigate what kind of returns: monetary (positive/ negative), and non-monetary (positive/ negative) immigrant nurses could receive on their multilingual competence. The scope of the systematic review is on the international body of research with a special emphasis on the implications for Germany as an immigration context.
Healthcare is a labor market sector with close customer contact where successful communication is essential to adequate and effective treatment. Due to steady immigration into Germany, the number of people with migration background needing healthcare is increasing (Marquardt, Delkic & Motzek, 2016). At the same time, a demographic change in the German population leads to a severe shortage of care workers, and recruiting foreign nurses is one of the strategies to deal with this problem (Merda, 2012). Concerning care workers’ on-the-job language practices, preliminary studies revealed that multilingual immigrant care workers use their heritage language in communication with immigrant patients and act as intermediaries with other medical staff, what could contribute to better treatment in everyday care (Elderkin-Thompsona, Silver & Waitzkin, 2001; Ali & Johnson, 2017).
The multilingualism of migrant care workers is mostly researched from a linguistic perspective concerning multilingual practices in everyday working life. According to these studies, multilingual care workers use their language skills intensively: in different types of care (e. g., inpatient and outpatient care, neonatal care, emergency services, elderly care); short-term in everyday care situations; on unforeseeable occasions or in acute situations (Meyer, 2010; Lundin, Hadziabdic & Hjelm, 2018; Patriksson, Nilsson, Wigert, 2022).
From research on the advantages of bilinguals in the labor market, it is known that immigrant employers can benefit from their multilingualism in the labor market, especially if there is a demand for multilingual communication (Damari et al., 2017). According to Chiswick and Miller (2007) as well as Isphording (2014), language skills of multilingual workers are considered as human capital that could provide returns on the labor market. However, it is still unclear, whether multilingual caregivers have returns from multilingual competence in the care sector. The current study addresses this research gap and investigates the multilingual competence of migrant care workers from the perspective of human capital theory (Becker, 1964).
The current study aims to present a systematic review to enable an overview of monetary and non-monetary returns to the multilingual competence of migrant care workers. The systematic review focuses on the following research questions: What are empirical findings about returns on multilingual competence of immigrant care workers? Under what conditions can migrant care workers get positive returns from their multilingualism?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedA systematic review was chosen because it enables an overview of the body of research and to analyze and compare studies from different disciplines, which is essential for the investigation of interdisciplinary topics.
The systematic review was carried out through the application of the Search, Appraisal, Synthesis, and Analysis (SALSA) framework according to Grant et al. (2009).
In the first step (Search), relevant literature was searched using the following database: ERIC, Fachportal Pädagogik, Google Scholar, and Science Direct. Keywords should contain information on both main topics: multilingualism and caregivers. The articles in English and German that were published starting from 2000 were considered. The initial database search generated 1130 articles.
In the second step (Appraisal), a further assessment of article abstracts was conducted to clarify whether the search results include the following inclusion and exclusion criteria: explicitly addressing returns of multilingual competence in care sector, focusing on the first generation of immigrant caregivers, with a year of arrival starting from 2000, written in English or German, being peer-reviewed.
In the third step (Synthesis), the whole articles were read and studies that were relevant for the answering of research questions were identified and selected. Only those studies that included information about returns on multilingual competence (e. g., not on intercultural competence) and focused on experiences of migrant caregivers (e. g., not on immigrant doctors) were selected. Thus, 16 articles were included in the final sample. These studies represent a situation with returns on multilingual competence in Germany, England, the USA, Finland, Sweden, Switzerland, and Spain.
In the last step (Analysis), selected articles were investigated using qualitative content analysis (Kuckartz, 2018).
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe preliminary findings of the Systematic Review are that immigrant caregivers could get on their multilingual competence:
• positive monetary,
• positive and negative non-monetary returns.
The analysis also showed different returns on the majority language skills and on heritage language. Migrant care workers can receive positive monetary returns in form of employment status on their proficiency in the majority language. Thus, the migrated caregivers with advanced knowledge of the majority language have more chances of getting a job (Müller, 2016). In terms of heritage language skills, immigrant nurses receive both positive and negative non-monetary returns. On the one hand, multilingual nurses are satisfied with their role as interpreters and emphasize that this allows for better patient treatment. It leads consequently to higher job satisfaction (Patriksson, Nilsson & Wigert, 2021). On the other hand, multilingual nurses combine their professional tasks with interpreting and communication in heritage languages with patients, which results in a higher burden (Hadziabdic, Lundin & Hjelm, 2015). Furthermore, the results of the systematic review indicate a gap in monetary returns from heritage languages. This research gap could be investigated in future studies.
Since multilingualism has only been researched fragmentary in the field of care workers and there are still no established theories, the current systematic review provides an important overview of the state of research that can be used in future research.
ReferencesAli, P.A., Johnson, S. (2017). Speaking my patient's language: bilingual nurses’ perspective about provision of language concordant care to patients with limited English proficiency. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 73 (2), 421-432, doi: 10.1111/jan.13143.
Becker, G., S. (1964). Human Capital; a Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Chiswick, B., R. (2008). The economics of language: an introduction and overview. Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn. https://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:101:1-2008070230.
Damari, R., Rivers, W., Brecht, R., Gardner, P., Pulupa, C., & Robinson, J. (2017). The Demand for Multilingual Human Capital in the U.S. Labor Market. Foreign Language Annals, 50 (1), 13–37, doi: 10.1111/flan.12241.
Elderkin-Thompson, V.; Silver, R.C.; Waitzkin, H. (2001). When nurses double as interpreters: a study of Spanish-speaking patients in a US primary care setting. Social Science & Medicine, 52(9), 1343–1358, doi: 10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00234-3.
Grant M., J., Booth A., Centre S. (2009). A typology of reviews: an analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies. Health Information & Libraries Journal, 26(2), 91-108, doi: 10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x.
Hadziabdic E, Lundin C, Hjelm K. (2015). Boundaries and conditions of interpretation in multilingual and multicultural elderly healthcare. BMC Health Serv Res. 6 (15):458, doi: 10.1186/s12913-015-1124-5.
Isphording, I., E. (2014). Language and Labor Market Success, IZA Discussion Papers, No. 8572, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn.
Kuckartz, U. (2018). Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse. Methoden, Praxis, Computerunterstützung (Grundlagentexte Methoden). Weinheim: Beltz.
Lundin C, Hadziabdic E, Hjelm K. (2018). Language interpretation conditions and boundaries in multilingual and multicultural emergency healthcare. BMC Int Health Hum Rights. 18(1):23, doi: 10.1186/s12914-018-0157-3.
Kuckartz, U. (2018). Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse. Methoden, Praxis, Computerunterstützung. Weinheim: Beltz.
Marquardt, G., Delkic, E., & Motzek, T. (2016). Wenn Migranten altwerden: Das Altenpflegesystem zwischen Versorgungslücken und Entwicklungspotenzialen. ifo Dresden berichtet, 23(1), 26–32. https://www.ifo.de/DocDL/ifodb-16-01-Marquardt-Einwandereralterung.pdf.
Merda, M., et al. (2012). Chancen zur Gewinnung von Fachkräften in der Pflegewirtschaft: Kurzfassung. Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie (BMWi), Berlin.
Meyer, B. (2010). Nurses as interpreters. Aspects of interpreter training for bilingual medical employees. In: B. Meyer & B. Apfelbaum (eds.) Multilingualism at work. From policies to practices in public, medical, and business settings (pp. 163-184). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Müller, A. (2016). Language proficiency and nursing registration. International Journal of Nursing Studies (54), 132–140.
Patriksson, K., Nilsson, S., & Wigert, H. (2021). Being a gift- Multilingual healthcare professionals in neonatal care. Journal of Neonatal Nursing (28), 67-71.
31. LEd – Network on Language and Education
Poster
A Longitudinal Study of English-speaking Anxiety and Psychological Adjustment Among International Student Sojourners in the UK
Qian Sun
University of Durham, United Kingdom
Presenting Author: Sun, Qian
1. Conceptual Framework
Studying abroad requires adjustment to the new environment (Brisset et al., 2010). Adjustment is a complex concept related to the dynamic process of matching between the individual and the environment (Ramsay et al., 2007). Ward and Searle (1991) proposed that cross-cultural adjustment can be divided into two domains: psychological (emotion) and sociocultural (behaviour) (Schwartz et al., 2010). Most studies have focused on sociocultural adjustment, while relatively few studies have focused on psychological adjustment. It is stressful for international students to adapt to the foreign language environment (Vande Berg et al., 2012). Students may experience foreign language anxiety(FLA) when they do not understand what is being said or are unable to easily form the desired response in the foreign language (Horwitz et al., 1986). FLA is an inevitable phenomenon in the foreign language learning process. It is thought to exist primarily in productive skills, especially in speaking.
In this study, the focus is on one country that uses the target language (English) -- the United Kingdom, this study focuses on the anxiety of speaking English as a foreign or second language. While many previous studies have studied FLA in classroom settings, this study attempts to transfer FLA research to outside-classroom settings. It has been suggested that living in an environment where the target language is also the language of everyday life and communication may influence anxiety and psychological adjustment processes.
Each of the concepts in this study will be well explained by the following theories：
- Foreign language anxiety: The Affective Filtering Hypothesis (Krashen, 1981) suggests that heightened anxiety reduces information intake.
- Psychological adjustment: The Stress and Coping Theory (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) emphasizes, in part, emotional aspects and examines sojourners' well-being and satisfaction with cross-cultural experiences.
- Personality: The Five Factor Model (Costa & McCrae, 1992) postulates personality to consist of five broad dimensions along which most people can be described: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism.
2. Objectives and Research Questions of Project
The goal is to provide new insights into psychological adjustment trajectories and English-speaking anxiety, which is a contribution to the student sojourn literature.
Main questions
- What are the patterns and dynamics of international student sojourners' English-speaking anxiety and psychological adjustment over time as students’ progress on their pre-sessional course and their Master’s degree course?
- How does psychological adjustment relate to English speaking anxiety, and to success on the course?
- What are possible person and situation factors that affect students’ psychological adjustment and English-speaking anxiety?
Sub-questions
- How do age, gender, discipline, personality, prior overseas experience, and English language proficiency relate to English speaking anxiety and psychological adjustment?
- What are the specific situation features or characteristics that trigger English speaking anxiety and psychological adjustment difficulties among international student sojourners over the pre-sessional course?
- What coping strategies do students have when they encounter English speaking anxiety and psychological adjustment difficulties?
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedA longitudinal design will be used to conduct this research. Longitudinal studies are defined as studies that emphasise change and should include at least three replicate observations (Ployhart & Vandenberg, 2010). In the project, English-speaking anxiety and psychological adjustment will be studied from both trait and state perspectives. A state is a temporary way of being while traits are more stable and enduring characteristics or patterns of behaviour. Trait questionnaires will be used to collect quantitative data four times over the duration of about 14 months, experience sampling methods will be used to collected quantitative data on a daily or weekly basis, resp., semi-structured interviews will be used to add some qualitative data. Experience sampling methods (state questionnaires) are supposed to provide more real-time data, which can give an insight into international students’ daily experiences.
International students will be invited to participate in a longitudinal study where they will be asked to complete a set of questionnaires, which will be administered twice during the pre-sessional course and twice during the subsequent master's course to conduct this study. The experience sampling methods will be repeated twice per week over the pre-sessional course, it will be distributed 4 times per day over 10 days during their Master program. Some of participants will also be invited for a semi-structured interview that will be conducted at the end of pre-sessional course and at the end of Master program, respectively.
Participants in this study will be international students who take pre-sessional courses in different UK universities, and they will continue to pursue graduate courses after finishing their pre-sessional courses. Validated instruments will be used to assess students’ psychological adjustment (psychological well-being & life satisfaction), English-speaking anxiety, and personality. Using experience sampling methods and will allow students to report their day-to-day experiences, thoughts, feelings, and behaviours within and outside the classroom. Using semi-structured interviews provides some insights into the possible underlying causal factors and potential corresponding coping strategies.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThrough this study, I hope to contribute to a better understanding of international students (ISs)' psychological adjustment trajectories as they study abroad, including their English-speaking anxiety outside the classroom, which is understudied. Secondly, I hope to develop a better understanding of the factors that may contribute to psychological adjustment difficulties and English-speaking anxiety, and of possible effective coping strategies international students could adopt. Besides, I hope that the results of this study will contribute to continued efforts to prepare students to benefit from their study abroad experience and contribute to ongoing efforts regarding psychological adjustment in the target language context.
The combination of these research methods is innovative in this context, which enables new insights into psychological adjustment processes and episodes of English-speaking anxiety as they unfold on a day-to-day level, week by week, during the acculturation phase of studying abroad.
ReferencesBrisset, C., Safdar, S., Lewis, J. R., & Sabatier, C. (2010). Psychological and sociocultural adaptation of university students in France: The case of Vietnamese international students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 34(4), 413–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.02.009.
Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70(2), pp.125-132.
Krashen, D. S. (1981). Second language Acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Lazarus, R.S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
Ramsay, S., Jones, E. & Barker, M. (2007). Relationship between adjustment and support types: Young and mature-aged local and international first year university students. Higher Education, 54(2), 247-265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734 -006-9001-0.
Schwartz, S. J., Unger, J. B., Zamboanga, B. L., & Szapocznik, J. (2010). Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research. American Psychologist, 65(4), 237– 251.
Vande Berg, M., R. M. Paige, and K. H. Lou. 2012. “Student Learning Abroad: Paradigms and Assumptions.” In Student Learning Abroad, edited by M. Vande Berg, 3–28. Sterling, VA: Stylus.
Ward, C. and Searle, W. (1991). The impact of values discrepancies and cultural identity on psychological and sociocultural adjustment of sojourners. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 15 (2), 209–225.
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