33. Gender and Education
Paper
Cyberbullying: Trojan Horse of Systemic Sexism
Sigolène Couchot-Schiex
CY Cergy Paris University, France
Presenting Author: Couchot-Schiex, Sigolène
Cyberbullying is a major issue within school. Heads of school admit this type of violence hard to predict, teachers are often blind to these underlying facts, families give in to the social injunction buying their teenager a mobile. While this is currently the case in French secondary schools, the phenomenon is spreading to many countries.
A proliferation of studies on the subject have documented this phenomenon since the early 2000s, mainly from a psychological perspective. It has been highlighted that part of cyberbullying is closely tied to the gender matrix through sexism, LGBTphobia and heteronormativity (Ringrose & al., 2013; Varela & al., 2021). In France, after the original work of Blaya (2011, 2013, 2018) we have taken up this topic according to the orientation of gender studies in the educational field (Couchot-Schiex, 2017; Couchot-Schiex & Moignard, 2020; Richard & Couchot-Schiex, 2020). While the term cyberbullying was popularised in the early 2000s (Belsey, 2004), agreement on a stable scientific definition is still lacking. There is, however, a consensus on certain features characterising the phenomenon, in particular the gendered identification of the roles of aggressor versus victim. While it is well established that half or even two thirds of aggressors are boys operating alone or in groups, the analyses do not always lead to a gendered interpretation of the operating mechanisms which we strive to incorporate into our studies.
Since 2016, we have conducted three studies in secondary schools (age range 11-16 years old) mapping this phenomenon among young people. This led us to set out elements of a definition in the French context (Couchot-Schiex & Richard, 2021), of what cybersexism might be. Thus, we are now able to describe this dynamic social phenomenon and bring out the underlying mechanisms. While there are strong characteristics of this phenomenon that are widely shared across schools, one of the interesting findings is that the amount of variation is strongly influenced by the context of students' lives, by their family and social anchors, which are locally situated, thus echoing some previous analyses on the importance of contexts on gendered socialisation, particularly for homophobic attitudes and behaviour (Anderson, 2011).
The paper aims to attest the reality of this phenomenon, as part of the socialisation among young people. The presentation will focus on some striking results of the image of cybersexism among pupils at school, identify the underlying gender mechanisms, and pinpoint the major developments from the latest survey.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe first study was carried out in 2015-2016 with 1130 pupils aged 12-16, the second in 2018-2019 with 3409 pupils aged 11-15, and the third, still ongoing, with 660 pupils aged 11-16, from one school. The current survey pursues the intersecting perspectives of students, staff (including teachers and other professionals) and families within a secondary school in France.
Data are collected from questionnaires and interviews. A specific questionnaire has been administered to each part of the study population: pupils, professionals, families. They collect school climate representations, digital word representations and practices, and measure the prevalence of sexist, homophobic and sexual on the one hand about cyberviolence on line and on social networks, and on the other hand, about bullying within school. The questionnaire for the students’ sample was administered in class, on tablets. It consists of 132 closed-ended variables allowing students to give their opinion on the school climate in their school and to self-report on victimisation experienced since the beginning of the school year in their school. The questions systematically begin with "since the beginning of the school year, in your school...".
Questionnaires for professionals and families were administrated on line. Their completion is still in progress.
Interviews were restricted to students (group and individual interviews) and staff. They aim to characterize bullying situations and their interrelations with the digital sociability of teenagers in a gender perspective. We also address emotional relationships and stereotypes related to gender and sexuality.
At this time, the inventory of the prevalence of sexism and cybersexism is based on the results of the students’ questionnaire. Additional insight may be gained from the results of staff and families’ questionnaires (available in may).
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsSexism should be seen as an integral part of socialisation from an early age. While early adolescence is a key time for the reinforcement of gendered positions and the rejection of certain alternative experiences or behaviours, adult socialisation, particularly in the professional context, should not be neglected. Although the student and staff populations are clearly separated by specific positions, a porosity exists and the interactions between these two groups are sensitive to the broader context of the school climate of the institution and the local geographical and socio-political context.
Outcomes will focus on some striking results of the image of sexism and cybersexism among students. The comparison of the results of the three studies carried out in different contexts highlights the commonalities and specificities that may be linked to local contexts.
Among the common characteristics, one strong point is that ordinary sexism is highly prevalent in schools: more than half of the girls receive the insult 'whore' at least once within 45 days (between the start of the school year and the first school holidays).
Another characteristic is that the prevalence of ordinary sexism and sexist, homophobic and sexual violence within school is much higher than that via social networks.
Finally, the rates of perceived school climate are very positive whereas the rates of sexist, homophobic and sexual victimisation can be alarming. An analysis of the underlying gender mechanisms is therefore essential.
Among new focuses provided by the latest study we can highlight the importance of local context subculture values and behaviour, including religion values, the prominence of digital practices staging sexual practices and porn, including the youngest students (11 years old).
The successive assessments allow us to confirm certain analyses of the underlying mechanisms and to propose new interpretations of this constantly evolving social phenomenon.
ReferencesAnderson, E. (2011). The rise and fall of western homohysteria. Journal of Feminist Scholarship, 1, 80–94.
Belsey, B. (2004). www.cyberbullying.ca
Blaya, C. (2011). Cyberviolence et cyberharcèlement: approaches sociologiques. La nouvelle revue de l’adaptation et de la scolarisation. 47-65.
Blaya, C. (2013). Les ados dans le cyberspace. Prises de risqué et cyberviolence. De Boeck supérieur.
Blaya, C. (2018). Le cyberharcèlement chez les jeunes. Enfance, 3.
Couchot-Schiex, S. (2017). « Prendre sa place »: une éducation par les pairs à l’école et dans le cyberespace. Éducation et sociétés, 39, 153-168.
Couchot-Schiex, S. & Moignard, B. (2020). Jeunesse, genre et violences 2.0. Des filles et des garçons face aux cyberviolences à l’école. Paris : L’Harmattan.
Couchot-Schiex, S. & Richard, G. (2021). Cyberviolences de genre. Définir et rendre compte du cybersexisme dans les pratiques numériques adolescentes. Éducation et socialisation. Les cahiers du CERFEE, 62. https://doi.org/10.4000/edso.15858
Richard, G. & Couchot-Schiex, S. (2020). Cybersexism : How Gender and Sexuality Are at Play in Cyberspace. In D. N. Farris, D’L. R. Compton & A. P. Herrera (Eds.) Gender, Sexuality and Race in the Digital Age (pp. 17-30). Cham : Springer Nature Switzerland.
Ringrose, J., L. Harvey, R. Gill et S. Livingstone (2013). ‘Teen girls, sexual double standards and ‘sexting’ : Gendered value in digital image exchange’, Feminist Theory, 14 :3, 305-323.
Varela, M. V., Mendez-Lois, M. J. & Barreiro Fernandez, F. (2021). Gender-based violence in virtual environments: a look at adolescent reality. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 55(19). 509-532.
33. Gender and Education
Paper
Female Bullying at School. Gender, Bodies, Adolescence and Behaviours
Antonia De Vita, Francesco Vittori, Paola Dusi
university of Verona, Italy
Presenting Author: Dusi, Paola
Thanks to the numerous studies on bullying conducted since the 1970s, today the topic enjoys a high level of awareness (Menesini & Nocentini, 2015; Scierri & Batini, 2021). Various forms of aggression, abuse and violence, repeated and perpetuated over time, by one peer onto another one unable to defend him/herself, are the keys characteristics of bullying. According to Olweus (2013), bullying is the repeated physical, verbal or psychological violence, that lasts over time, with both an ex-ante and ex-post imbalance between victim and perpetrator. The victim(s) chosen by the bully are usually physically and psychologically weaker than him/herself, are persecuted for a long time with heavy psychological, emotional and relational consequences. Bullying is described as multidimensional, dynamic, complex and characterized by three elements: asymmetry, persistence and intentionality (Olweus, 1994; 1998; 2013; Menesini, 2000).
According to Volturo (2011), the bully and the victim are always surrounded by other figures. Thus, bullying does not only involve the perpetrator and the victim but creates a complex relational dynamic. Moreover, age affects the different manifestations of oppression by showing how, for example, with the advance of adolescence we move more frequently towards forms of indirect and relational aggression (Rivers & Smith, 1994). The victims of bullying are children and young people, among them most likely are foreigners, disabled, homosexuals and of course, girls who are also the victims of social misogyny. In short, the categories stigmatized by the dominant group in society at large. The difficulty in identifying clear and unambiguous motivations for aggression is linked to the fact that this phenomenon arises from many socio-cultural factors, whose interaction acts as a trigger for bullying. It is also important to note that bullying occurs at school and not in other contexts. The school is not only the “stage” for children interaction, i.e., where it plays out, but it is also a central place in its generation. Group dynamics and the phenomena of peer reputation building must therefore be examined in light of this specific environment that today is the only one left within our society where children spend many hours a day among hundreds of peers (Author 1 & 2, 2022).
Our study seeks to examine the complex phenomenon of bullying among teenage girls at school (ages 14-16). Albeit it is still perceived as less common as bullying among boys, violence and aggressions among girls are on the rise, and it has become a pressing concern in the field of education. Despite this reality, there is a relative dearth of empirical and/or multi-method research on the topic. Our nation-wide study “Female Bullying at School: an intersectional mixed-method investigation”, which involved colleagues from 5 other Italian Universities (Milan-Bicocca, Genoa, Perugia, Foggia and Enna “Kore”), approaches bullying from an interdisciplinary standpoint, using both qualitative and quantitative methodologies, aiming to pursue two main objectives:
1. To reach a deeper understanding of female bullying based on an intersectional point of view that examines both the relational dynamics, and behaviours of bullies, bullied and bystanders.
2. To survey and assess the incidence of female bullying in Italy.
Given the existing evidence that female bullying is essentially an intragender phenomenon (Author, forthcoming), we chose to interpret aggressive behaviours and female (cyber)bullying as an arena of contention in which different “models of femininity” are compared and contrasted, to the point that we might consider the phenomenon an enactment of societal gender norms.
This hypothesis has been partially confirmed in the preliminary inquiry developed with students, age 18, in 2018-19 in Verona (Author 1 & 2, 2022).
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedTo avoid using “male bullying” as the primary benchmark in our interpretation of female violence, we propose to examine the issue of girls’ victimization at school within the intra-female-gender relationships framework through the adoption of the intersectional perspective due to female bullying “invisibility” (SooHoo, 2009). The aim is to surface the specificity of the phenomenon that in the scientific literature seems to be a prerogative of the neutral-masculine interpretation. Specifically, during the pandemic, we have witnessed the rise of online bullying favored by quarantine and physical distance (Barlett et al. 2021) together with an increase in its psychological and physical manifestations such as self-cutting practices, suicides, depression, mental disease, nerves breakdown, and so on (Courtney et al. 2020; Authors, 1& 2; Burgio, 2022).
Although our study knits together qualitative and quantitative methodologies to explore the complex phenomenon of female bullying and puts forward an integrated perspective - straddling the disciplines of psychology and pedagogy - this paper will focus only on the collected qualitative data.
Namely, the insights gathered from the 10 Web-Based Focus Groups (Brown et al., 2021) that we organized in 2020 during the pandemic lockdown with 52 students between the age of 14 and 16 collected from 5 different secondary schools in the city of Verona. Due to the nation-wide scale of the whole study, we decided as research group to follow the Framework Analysis approach (Goldsmith, 2021; Smith & Firth, 2011) as already described elsewhere (Authors, forthcoming). Through the cross-check analysis of the qualitative data, the whole research group collectively established an Analytical Framework conducive to capture the specific nuances of female bullying in each socio-spatial context.
More specifically, this Framework is organized into macro-categories as follow:
1. Representations (of female bullying)
2. Events (suffered or attended)
3. Emotions/feelings (perceived and experienced during violent events)
4. Strategies/way out suggestions
5. Lessons learned
6. Impact/consequences
7. Process results (evaluation of the research experience)
8. Adults (teachers, parents, etc.)
9. Places/space of female bullying
10. Bystanders
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsAs demonstrated by the preliminary investigation (Authors 1 & 2, 2022), the aggressiveness and bullying among teenage girls normally rest on different pattern of victimizations. Firstly, the body is properly considered the ‘battlefield’ of contentions and adolescents’ affirmation. The perceived differences, such as the ideal of thinness, perfectness, skin color, religion, economic status and popularity are usually the most reported triggers that unleash violence, marginalization, digital aggressiveness, and discriminations among girls. Moreover, what strongly arise is that Italian schools have effectively failed to acknowledge the extent of the phenomenon, which is present and, in the perception of the students, constitutes a crisis in education. Female bullying stems from ideas relative to what a woman/female should be. Moreover, the importance of the peer group stands out: peer relationships are basically the material and non-material space where bullying takes shape and form. It mostly happens in the classroom, via WhatsApp and other Social Media, before and after school-time (Batini et al. forthcoming).
Nevertheless, FGs participants highlighted the ineffectiveness of educational tools and strategies adopted by school communities to deal with conflicts and violence. School teachers and families resulted as almost unable to support and help young girls facing and experiencing peers bullying.
Eventually, the analysis and exploration of these data will provide the basis for planning the subsequent phases of the study that necessarily shall be focused upon concrete protocols and prevention strategies for schools, teenagers, teachers, and families. Our intention, thanks to the comprehensiveness of the dataset, is to establish a few concrete actions in a participatory fashion among the schools that took part in the research project.
ReferencesBarlett, C. P., Simmers, M. M., Roth, B., & Gentile, D. (2021). Comparing cyberbullying prevalence and process before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Journal of Social Psychology, 161(4), 408-418.
Brown, C. A., Revette, A. C., de Ferranti, S. D., Fontenot, H. B., & Gooding, H. C. (2021). Conducting web-based focus groups with adolescents and young adults. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 20, 1609406921996872.
Courtney, D., Watson, P., Battaglia, M., Mulsant, B. H., & Szatmari, P. (2020). COVID-19 impacts on child and youth anxiety and depression: challenges and opportunities. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 65(10), 688-691.
Authors (2023)
Authors (2022).
Goldsmith, L. J. (2021). Using Framework Analysis in Applied Qualitative Research. Qualitative Report, 26(6).
Menesini, E. (2000). Bullismo, che fare? Prevenzione e strategie d’intervento nella scuola. Firenze: Giunti.
Menesini, E., & Nocentini, A. (2015). Il bullismo a scuola: come prevenirlo, come intervenire. Firenze: Giunti.
Olweus, D. (1994). Bullying at School. In: Huesmann, L.R. (eds) Aggressive Behavior. The Plenum Series in Social/Clinical Psychology. Boston, MA: Springer.
Olweus, D. (1998). Bullismo a scuola. Ragazzi oppressi, ragazzi che opprimono. Firenze: Giunti.
Olweus, D. (2013). School bullying: Development and some important challenges. Annual review of clinical psychology, 9, 751-780.
Rivers, I., & Smith, P. K. (1994). Types of bullying behaviour and their correlates. Aggressive behavior, 20(5), 359-368.
Scierri, I., & Batini F. (eds.) (2021). In/sicurezza fra i banchi: Bullismo, omofobia e discriminazioni a scuola: dati, riflessioni, percorsi a partire da una ricerca nelle scuole secondarie umbre. Milano: Franco Angeli.
Smith, J., & Firth, J. (2011). Qualitative data analysis: the framework approach. Nurse researcher, 18(2).
SooHoo, S. (2009). Examining the Invisibility of Girl-to-Girl Bullying in Schools: A Call to Action. International Electronic Journal for Leadership in Learning, 13(6), n6.
Authors (2022).
Volturo, S. (2011). VIII. Bullismo. Definizioni, ricerche e strategie d'intervento. Autonomie locali e servizi sociali, 34(1), 81-94
33. Gender and Education
Paper
Success Factors of School-based Interventions to Prevent Gender-based Violence in Childhood: A Systematic Review
Rocío García-Carrión1, Andrea Khalfaoui1,2, Garazi Álvarez Guerrero1
1University of Deusto, Spain; 2University of Edinburgh
Presenting Author: García-Carrión, Rocío;
Khalfaoui, Andrea
An important public health issue that affects millions of people worldwide is gender violence. One of the most susceptible groups to gender violence is infants (Dagadu et al., 2022). Recent research has concentrated on examining the negative effects gender-based violence can have on children, particularly when they reach adulthood (Chung & Huang, 2021). Gender violence inflicted on young children is linked to detrimental developmental outcomes and may have long-lasting harmful repercussions (Banyard et al., 2019). While bullying and violence in schools are recognised problems with known impacts on children's physical and mental health, their underlying causes, which have not yet been fully examined, include social and gender standards (Segura & Carcedo, 2020).
Moreover, gender violence in schools is rarely documented and is less frequently acknowledged as a significant issue in young children (Evans et al., 2021). Therefore, prospects for its prevention and for an efficient intervention may be hampered by a lack of understanding of gender-based violence in childhood and very early in life (Doni, 2021). In this sense, schools are the perfect scenarios to promote prevention of gender-based violence and abuse, as they can provide students the skills they need to identify risky behaviours and lessen them (Devries et al., 2017). Thus, determining efficient methods to stop gender-based violence in the first years of school is crucial.
In order to guarantee that all children get high-quality education through violence-free schools, the goal of this research is to undertake a comprehensive assessment of treatments to prevent gender-based violence in childhood, especially from 3 to 12 years old, inclusive. The research questions related to the objective of identifying successful interventions and programs in preventing and overcoming gender-based violence from early years were stated:
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What programs and interventions have been implemented in school settings to prevent and reduce gender-based violence?
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Have they been successful? What effects have they achieved?
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What are their main characteristics?
To accomplish this goal a systematic review was carried out. By using this methodological technique, we have carefully systematised and analysed the scientific literature on t effective early interventions to identify and and prevent gender-based violence in schools.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThis research is part of a larger research project called CHILDPRO: It is never too early to prevent gender-based violence: identifying and overcoming risk behaviours in childhood, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Spain. To carry out the review, we followed the PRISMA statement (Rethlefsen et al., 2021) in order to guarantee transparency, validity, replicability and updateability in this study. The protocol for conducting a systematic review consists of the following: defining purpose of the study; narrowing the search strategy; literature search in the selected databases; screening according to inclusion and exclusion criteria; quality assessing of publication; gathering relevant information; synthesising of studies; and writing up.
The inclusion and exclusion criteria were established, with the aim of including g only the literature relevant to the purpose of this study:
Educational intervention from 3 to 12 years old (inclusive).
Intervention focused on preventing or reducing gender-based violent behaviour.
Interventions with impact/outcome evaluation.
Exclusion criteria (meeting one of these criteria implies the publication is excluded):
Intervention at school age above 12 years old or prior to infant stage (3 years old).
Intervention outside the school setting.
Intervention not referring explicitly to gender-related violence.
Then, a total of 13 studies selected from SCOPUS, Web of Science, ERIC and PsychINFO were examined in detail considering aspects related to (a) the relevance of the study to the scope of the review and (b) methodological reliability aspects such as the appropriateness of the method and data collection, claims and evidence. Several success criteria have been established after examining the primary features of the therapies as well as their outcomes. These elements are frequently featured in many interventions that enhance the recognition, prevention, or reduction of gender-based violence in the setting of schools.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThe Intervention is Incorporated into the Curriculum at the School
The integration of the intervention into the school curriculum so that it is more than a one-time or occasional activity for the kids' academic activities is one of the repeating features observed in the investigated programmes. Therefore, 12 out of 13 articles [Reference number: 1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9,11,12,13,14] contain curriculum adjustments.
Student Involvement, Conversation, and Co-Creation
Consideration of the students themselves while developing activities and programmes for the prevention and reduction of gender-based violence is another feature of interventions that is commonly present. Different studies [2,3,4,7,8,9,11,12] discuss how they actively participated and listened to their voices and priorities.
Safe School Environment
It is critical that the school be a safe space where supportive social interactions can be developed in order to facilitate conversations and reflections about violence. For instance, Smothers and Smothers programme (2011) primarily relied on two crucial elements: (a) the integration of sexual abuse prevention interventions (b) fostering healthy relationships. Also, the foundation of Ollis et al. (2021) is developing relationships that are respectful and equal. Similarly, the programme of McLaughlin et al. (2015) builds on establishing safe settings through participation and discourse.
Examining Scientific Proof of Effective Programs and Accurate Models
The programmes examined in this systematic review were created using both strategies that have historically proven successful in preventing gender-based violence [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,11,13,14] as well as theories on how to do so.
Engaging Community Agents Who Are Relevant
The community [3,6,8,11], family, parents, and tutors [3,7,8,13], experts [8,9,11], victims of gender-based violence [7], or health workers [3] have all been considered in several interventions, along with teachers [7,11], head teachers, school leaders [9,11], and even politicians [11], as important agents for overcoming gender based violence in schools.
References1. Banyard, V. L., et al. (2019). Evaluating a gender transformative violence prevention program for middle school boys: A pilot study. Children and Youth Services Review, 101.
2. Chung, Y., & Huang, H.H. (2021). Cognitive-based interventions break gender stereotypes in kindergarten children. IJERPH 18(24).
3. Dagadu, N.A. et al. (2022). Fostering gender equality and reproductive and sexual health among adolescents: Results from a quasi-experimental study in Northern Uganda. BMJ Open.
4. Devries, K.M., Knight, L., & Allen, E. (2017). Does the Good Schools Toolkit Reduce Physical, Sexual and Emotional Violence, and Injuries, in Girls and Boys equally? A Cluster-Randomised Controlled Trial. Preventive Sciences, 18.
5. Doni, E. (2021). Exposing Preschool Children to Counterstereotypical Professional Role Models Using Audiovisual Means: A Small Study in a Preschool in Greece. Early Childhood Education Journal, 49.
6. Edwards, K.M., et al. (2022). Effectiveness of a sexual assault self-defense program for American Indian girls. Journal of interpersonal violence, 37.
7. Kågesten, A.E., et al. (2021). Young people’s experiences with an empowerment-based behavior change intervention to prevent sexual violence in Nairobi informal settlements: A qualitative study. Global Health: Science and Practice, 9(3).
8. McLaughlin, C., Swartz, S. Cobbett, M., & Kiragu, S. (2015). Inviting Backchat: How schools and communities in Ghana, Swaziland and Kenya support children to contextualise knowledge and create agency through sexuality education. International Journal of Educational Development, 41.
9. Ollis, D., et al. (2022). ‘Bulldozers aren’t just for boys’: respectful relationships education challenges gender bias in early primary students. International Journal of Health Promotion and Education, 60(4).
10. Rethlefsen, M.L., et al. (2021) PRISMA-S: An extension to the PRISMA Statement for Reporting Literature Searches in Systematic Reviews. Systematic Review 10.
11. Sarnquist, C., et al. (2019). A protocol for a cluster-randomized controlled trial testing an empowerment intervention to prevent sexual assault in upper primary school adolescents in the informal settlements of Nairobi, Kenya. BMC public health, 19.
12. Segura, A. M., & Carcedo, R. J. (2020). Effectiveness of a prevention program for gender-based intimate partner violence at a Colombian primary school. Frontiers in psychology,10.
13. Smothers, M.K., & Smothers, D.B. (2011). A sexual assault primary prevention model with diverse urban youth. Journal of child sexual abuse, 20(6).
14. Taylor, B.G., Mumford, E.A., & Stein, N.D. (2015). Effectiveness of “shifting boundaries” teen dating violence prevention program for subgroups of middle school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 56(2).
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