03. Curriculum Innovation
Poster
Competence-Oriented Curricula and the Promotion of Bildung: The Case of Philosophy Teaching in Norway
Pedro Vincent Dias Bergheim
University of Bergen, Norway
Presenting Author: Bergheim, Pedro Vincent Dias
Research questions, objectives and theoretical framework
The transnational turn from content-oriented to competence-oriented curriculum making may have altered understandings of how to facilitate Bildung in public education (Hilt & Riese, 2021). In 2020, a comprehensive reform of the National Curriculum for Norway (Læreplanverket) was carried out intending to clarify, among other things, the connection between the Bildung-promoting task (danningsoppdrag) of public education and classroom teaching (Meld. St. 28 (2015-2016)). In the meantime, policymakers in Norway have argued for an increased presence of philosophy teaching in the national curriculum based on the idea that it facilitates Bildung (danning) (St.meld. nr. 30 (2003-2004); Meld.St. nr. 25 (2016-2017)).
This poster presentation is about the description of philosophy teaching and Bildung in the National Curriculum for Norway. How is the concept of Bildung and the teaching of philosophy discursively represented in the National Curriculum for Norway and what are their points of convergence?
Philosophy teaching can be placed on a continuum between two extremes, where one side stands for a ‘content-based’ and the other for a ‘method-based’ definition of philosophy (Bialystok, 2017). The content-based definition corresponds to what Godlovitch (2000) labels the “Proper Content view”. According to this view, philosophy is a field of knowledge with its own historical and thematic content (ontology, epistemology, antiquity, etc.). Meanwhile, the method-based definition corresponds to the “No Content view”, where philosophy is interpreted as a transdisciplinary modus operandi, useful for potentially any type of inquiry. Because these extremes either depict the content or the method as that which characterises philosophy as such, to favour the content-based definition (e.g., Bialystok, 2017; Biesta, 2011; Murris, 2016) or the method-based definition (e.g., Vansieleghem, 2013; Kienstra, Karskens & Imants, 2014) also means to favour different ways of incorporating philosophy in classroom teaching (Bialystok, 2017). Prior to the 2020 reform, both the Proper and No Content view of philosophy were present in pre-college teaching in the National Curriculum for Norway (see e.g., the national subject curriculum of ‘History and Philosophy’, ‘Religion and Ethics’ and ‘Knowledge of Christianity, Religion, Philosophies of life and Ethics’). Parts of the curriculum encouraged the use of philosophical questions, conversations, and ‘way of thinking’ in the teaching of school subjects, thus advocating philosophy teaching as a transdisciplinary method of inquiry. Other parts, however, also mentioned philosophers, philosophical traditions and texts, thus suggesting that philosophy has a content of its own to be taught. In other words, the role of the didactics of philosophy in Norway was multifaceted and prone to change.
The objective of analysing the relation between the teaching of philosophy and Bildung in the current National Curriculum for Norway is therefore threefold: to clarify what the representation of Bildung-promoting teaching in competence-oriented curriculum making is, what the National Curriculum for Norway is directing the didactics of philosophy towards and whether it reflects or stands as an alternative to transnational trends in education.
The study’s theoretical framework is based on a poststructural perspective on policy analysis known as “What’s the Problem Represented to be?” (WPR) (Bacchi & Goodwin, 2016). It presumes that unquestioned knowledge(s) (included about the nature of things, beings and the human subject) are generated in repeated heterogenous social practices and relations (Bacchi, 2016, p.109). ‘Knowledge’ is not truth, but that which is accepted as truth, thus being indissociable from ‘discourses’ understood as socially produced forms of knowledge that set limits to how we may understand the world (Bacchi, 2016, p.35). Policies can therefore be said to rely on unexamined assumptions to produce and represent the “problems” that they propose to solve.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedFor this paper, I will combine Bacchi and Goodwin’s (2016) WPR-approach to policy analysis with a deductive oriented thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2022).
First, I will employ WPR to analyse the concept of Bildung in Norwegian education policy. To clarify how Bildung is represented in the Norwegian National Curriculum, I will start by elucidating the “problem” to be solved by education policy and policy proposals reinforcing the 2020 curriculum reform in Norway. Then, I will investigate how Bildung is constituted as a part of the proposed solution to the “problem”. Considered that representations of Bildung presume a link between the inner cultivation of the individual and the development of better societies (Horlacher, 2017), I will analyse the concept of Bildung in Norwegian education policy through the lens of Bacchi and Goodwin's (2016) discursive categories ‘subject’ and ‘place’. While WPR is not concerned with the analysis of patterns of speech, rhetoric and communication, policy texts may be used as levers “to open up reflections on the forms of governing instituted through a particular way of constituting a “problem”” (Bacchi & Goodwin, 2016, p.18). For this article, I will use the white papers St. Meld. 30 (2003-2004), Meld. St. 28 (2015-2016) and the core curriculum of the National Curriculum for Norway as a starting point for the analysis. Meld. St. 28 (2015-2016) presents the rationale behind the 2020 national curriculum reform in Norway, which is described in the same document both as a development and renewal of the 2006 reform. The latter was introduced by the white paper St. Meld. 30 (2003-2004) and marked the shift from a content-oriented to a competence-oriented approach to curriculum making (Hilt & Riese, 2021). The two white papers are therefore important to identify the “problem” that a competence-oriented comprehension of Bildung addresses and, subsequently, what makes the given comprehension unique. Finally, the national core curriculum describes the values and principles for primary and secondary education in Norway, included what Bildung comprises and its place in schooling.
Based on the discursive representation of Bildung revealed by the WPR-approach, I will then conduct a deductive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2022) of the national school subject curriculum of ‘History and Philosophy’, ‘Religion and Ethics’ and ‘Knowledge of Christianity, Religion, Philosophies of life and Ethics’. The analysis will focus on the points of convergence between descriptions of Bildung and the teaching of philosophy.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsWhile the study is in its preliminary stages, the dataset suggests that the National Curriculum for Norway favours a representation of Bildung as a capacity for problem-solving. This is connected to the description of a society in permanent change that must adapt to the challenges of today as much as to the unpredictable challenges of the future. A consequence appears to be that education must prioritise the development of long-lasting skills and adapt the content of teaching to it. Accordingly, it would seem like representations Bildung-promoting teaching in philosophy tends towards an understanding of philosophy as a transdisciplinary method of inquiry and less so on philosophy as a field of knowledge. If so, the written curriculum’s use of the concept of Bildung may be too narrow, as it does not grant teachers sufficient autonomy to evaluate how Bildung can be put into practice in classroom teaching (Bergheim, 2023).
References1.Bacchi, C. L., & Goodwin, S. (2016). Poststructural policy analysis: A guide to practice. Palgrave Macmillan.
2.Bergheim, P. (2023). Bildung as an Empty and Floating Signifier in Curriculum Work for Democracy [Manuscript in preparation]. Department of Education, University of Bergen.
3.Bialystok, L. (2017). Philosophy across the Curriculum and the Question of Teacher Capacity; Or, What Is Philosophy and Who Can Teach It?: What Is Philosophy and Who Can Teach It? Journal of Philosophy of Education, 51(4), 817–836. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.12258
4.Biesta, G. (2011). Philosophy, Exposure, and Children: How to Resist the
Instrumentalisation of Philosophy in Education: Philosophy, Exposure, and Children.
Journal of Philosophy of Education, 45(2), 305–319. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
9752.2011.00792.x
5.Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Thematic analysis: A practical guide. SAGE.
6.Godlovitch, S. (2000). What Philosophy Might be About: Some Socio-philosophical Speculations. Inquiry, 43(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/002017400321343
7.Hilt, L., & Riese, H. (2021). Hybrid forms of education in Norway: A systems theoretical approach to understanding curriculum change. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2021.1956596
8.Kienstra, N., Karskens, M., & Imants, J. (2014). Three Approaches to Doing Philosophy: A Proposal for Grouping Philosophical Exercises in Classroom Teaching: Three Approaches to Doing Philosophy. Metaphilosophy, 45(2), 288–318. https://doi.org/10.1111/meta.12085
9.Kunnskapsdepartementet. (2003). St.meld. Nr. 30 (2003–2004): Kultur for læring [Stortingsmelding].
10.Kunnskapsdepartementet. (2015). Meld. St. 28 (2015–2016): Fag – Fordypning – Forståelse En fornyelse av Kunnskapsløftet [Stortingsmelding].
11.Kunnskapsdepartementet. (2016). Meld. St. 25 (2016–2017) — Humaniora i Norge [Stortingsmelding].
12.Murris, K. (2016). The Philosophy for Children Curriculum: Resisting ‘Teacher Proof’
Texts and the Formation of the Ideal Philosopher Child. Studies in Philosophy and
Education, 35(1), 63–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11217-015-9466-3
13.UDIR. (2006). Læreplan i religion og etikk – fellesfag I studieforberedende utdanningsprogram (REL1-01). https://data.udir.no/kl06/REL1-01.pdf
14.UDIR. (2015) Læreplan i kristendom, religion, livssyn og etikk (KRLE). https://data.udir.no/kl06/rle1-02.pdf
15.UDIR. (2016). Læreplan i historie og filosofi – programfag (HIF1-02).
http://data.udir.no/kl06/HIF1-02.pdf
16.Vansieleghem, N. (2013). This is (Not) a Philosopher: On Educational Philosophy in an Age of Psychologisation. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 32(6), 601–612.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11217-012-9341-4
03. Curriculum Innovation
Poster
How Do the Curricula of Pedagogy and Telecommunications Include Learning to Learn in Spain
Evelyn Eunise Moctezuma Ramírez1,2, Fran J. Garcia-Garcia1, Inmaculada López-Francés1, Vicent Gozálvez1, Cruz Pérez-Pérez1
1University of Valencia, Spain; 2Autonomus University of the State of Morelos, Mexico
Presenting Author: Moctezuma Ramírez, Evelyn Eunise;
Garcia-Garcia, Fran J.
Today's social and labor demands require demonstrating specific knowledge and skills in Higher Education prior to graduation. In VUCA societies, it is no longer sufficient to accredit certain training hours. Therefore, over the last decade, universities worldwide have attempted to replace time-based curriculum (Kelly & Columbus, 2016) with the competence-based curriculum (Echols et al., 2018; Gargallo López, 2017). In fact, since the late 1990s, the importance of mastering some knowledge, skills, and competences to remain in the labor market has grown. At that time, the OECD launched its DeSeCo project to define and select these key competences. A few years later, the European Commission adopted the OECD’s idea for member states, defining eight key competences and including "learning to learn" (LtL). Despite several years of attempting to incorporate LtL into the curriculum of educational systems, the EU continues to stress its importance (European Commission, 2018; Sala et al., 2020). This leads us to believe that the curriculum design of LtL is still a problem, and we wondered how study plans are being designed to incorporate this competence. We are particularly concerned about European universities, where an attempt has been made to adopt a competence-based curriculum since the Bologna process, sometimes with limited success (e.g., Chies et al., 2019).
Teaching to learn is a difficult task. To begin with, the academic community has encountered difficulties even in reaching an agreement on what this entails (Deakin Crick et al., 2014), although a recent study validated the content of a theoretical model on LtL (Garcia-Garcia et al., 2022; Gargallo López et al., 2020). Perhaps this is why our country, Spain, has lacked a firm commitment to transversal competences from the outset. Sánchez‐Elvira et al. (2011) analyzed the competences in the curriculum of Spanish universities after the Bologna reform and found that only some universities had a formal and shared set of transversal competences, such as LtL, which did not reach 20% of the training offer. Nearly 25% of the institutions did not even mention these competences, neither in the degrees nor in the subjects. Nevertheless, it is necessary to incorporate LtL in the curriculum so that teachers have a framework that facilitates teaching to learn in the classroom. Otherwise, it will not be credible to include LtL in the graduate profiles and, thus, to ensure that students know how to learn on their own after graduation to face the VUCA societies’ demands.
To date, few studies have analyzed the curriculum of Spanish universities using teaching programs (e.g., García-García et al., 2020; San Martín Gutiérrez et al., 2016), even though this is where the competences originate. For this reason, we have conducted a descriptive study using the teaching programs of two degrees (i.e., Pedagogy and Telecommunications), considering the LtL contents of the theoretical model of Gargallo López et al. (2020). The study addresses the following research questions (RQs).
RQ1. How frequently do LtL components appear in the Pedagogy and Telecommunication curriculum?
RQ2. Do LtL contents appear with the same frequency in the Pedagogy and Telecommunication curriculum?
RQ3. Are LtL contents more associated with transversal competences or those applied to a specific discipline?
The answer to these research questions helps us understand how Spanish curriculum designers have incorporated LtL in both degrees and its implications for curriculum design and educational practice in Higher Education.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedSample and material
We analyzed 23 Pedagogy curricula (i.e., 1,032 teaching programs) and 14 Telecommunications curricula (i.e., 864 teaching programs). We reached 98.33% of the curricula of both degrees. Therefore, the findings are representative. We reviewed 20,321 competences programmed to develop over 228,000 hours of training (i.e., 9,120 ECTS credits). We used the theoretical model of Gargallo Lopez et al. (2020) to detect the presence of LtL components; and analyzed their correlation with disciplinary competences (e.g., evaluating educational programs, analyzing guided communication systems) and transversal competences (e.g., decision-making, problem-solving). The dataset had 12,426 disciplinary and 7,895 transversal competences. Contrasting two different degrees provided external validity to the results (Esterling et al., 2021).
Data management and analysis
We identified the universities that offered degrees in Pedagogy and Telecommunications in the register of centers and titles (RUCT) of the Ministry of Universities of Spain. After the search, we accessed their official websites, downloaded the teaching programs of the subjects, and extracted data on the competences. When the competences had an imprecise definition, were equivocal, or consisted of activities but did not include a learning outcome, we excluded them from the analysis.
We calculated the presence of LtL components in the competences of each teaching program. We recorded 1 when the component appeared and 0 when it did not appear. In this way, we obtained a matrix with binary code to express a dichotomous ordinal variable, but the data was still insufficient. The matrix did not reflect the presence of a certain component to the number of training hours of each subject. Therefore, we multiplied the (0,1) matrix by the number of credits for the subject where each competence was located. We divided the result by the total credits of the curriculum to obtain a score relative to the offer of the degree. In this way, we obtained the maximum presence (MP) of the LtL components since it is impossible to determine how much time a teacher dedicates to work on each competence.
It was necessary to correct MP due to the offer of elective subjects. To do this, we multiplied MP in elective subjects * (total elective credits offered / elective credits taken by students). We then added the result to MP in mandatory subjects to obtain a corrected MP score.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsAnswer to RQ1 & RQ2
Critical thinking and communication skills appeared more than other LtL components in Pedagogy and Telecommunications. In both cases, there was a similar distribution in the corrected MP, although information management was more predominant in Pedagogy and problem-solving in Telecommunications.
Competences related to attributing learning to self-effort and maintaining physical and emotional well-being did not appear in any teaching program. In Pedagogy, there were competences related to non-verbal communication, self-concept, self-esteem, self-efficacy, emotional self-regulation, and anxiety control. However, we did not find any of them in Telecommunications.
Answer to RQ3
The competences with LtL components positively correlated with both the transversal competences (rho = .803, p = .000) and the disciplinary competences (rho = .703, p = .000). Therefore, the results revealed an intention to teach for learning within a specific discipline (i.e., pedagogy, telecommunications), rather than just in a transversal manner, as proposed by the EU (European Commission, 2018; Sala et al., 2020).
Conclusion and implications for practice
The curriculum designers focused more on information processing than on collaborative learning and on student strategies to maintain motivation. The individual learning components of LtL had a higher corrected MP than the social learning components. Although most of the curricula contemplated teamwork in a general sense, they did not incorporate the latest research developments, such as co-regulation of learning (Hadwin et al., 2019).
The curriculum does include LtL components, at least in the two degrees we have analyzed, but it needs restructuring to incorporate research developments.
ReferencesChies, L., Graziosi, G., & Pauli, F. (2019). The Impact of the Bologna Process on Graduation: New Evidence from Italy. Research in Higher Education, 60(2), 203–218. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11162-018-9512-4/FIGURES/2
Deakin Crick, R., Stringher, C., & Ren, K. (2014). Learning to Learn. International perspectives from theory and practice. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203078044
Echols, D. G., Neely, P. W., & Dusick, D. (2018). Understanding faculty training in competency-based curriculum development. The Journal of Competency-Based Education, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/cbe2.1162
Esterling, K. M., Brady, D., & Schwitzgebel, E. (2021). The Necessity of Construct and External Validity for Generalized Causal Claims. OSF Preprints. https://doi.org/10.31219/OSF.IO/2S8W5
European Commission. (2018). Council Recommendation of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning. https://bit.ly/2DwOEin
Garcia-Garcia, F. J., López-Francés, I., Gargallo-López, B., & Pérez-Pérez, C. (2022). Validación de contenido de la competencia “aprender a aprender” en los grados universitarios. Revista de Investigación Educativa, 40(2), 513–530. https://doi.org/10.6018/RIE.466271
García-García, F. J., López-Torrijo, M., & Santana-Hernández, R. (2020). Educación inclusiva en la formación del profesorado de educación secundaria : los programas españoles. Profesorado. Revista de Currículum y Formación de Profesorado, 2(2), 270–293. https://doi.org/10.30827/profesorado.v24i2.14085
Gargallo López, B. (2017). Enseñanza centrada en el aprendizaje y diseño por competencias en la Universidad. Fundamentación, procedimientos y evidencias de aplicación e investigación. Tirant Humanidades.
Gargallo López, B., Pérez-Pérez, C., Garcia-Garcia, F. J., Giménez Beut, J. A., & Portillo Poblador, N. (2020). La competencia aprender a aprender en la universidad: propuesta de modelo teórico. Educacion XX1, 23(1), 19–44. https://doi.org/10.5944/educxx1.23367
Hadwin, A., Järvelä, S., & Miller, M. (2019). Self-Regulation, Co-Regulation, and Shared Regulation in Collaborative Learning Environments. In D. H. Schunk & J. A. Greene (Eds.), Educational psychology handbook series. Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (pp. 83–106). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315697048-6
Kelly, A. P., & Columbus, R. (2016). Innovate and evaluate. Expanding the researh base for competency-based education. American Enterprise Institute.
Sala, A., Punie, Y., Garkov, V., & Cabrera, M. (2020). LifeComp: The European Framework for Personal, Social and Learning to Learn Key Competence. EUR 30246 EN, Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2760/922681
San Martín Gutiérrez, S., Jiménez Torres, N., & Jerónimo Sánchez-Beato, E. (2016). La evaluación del alumnado universitario en el Espacio Europeo de Educación Superior. Aula Abierta, 44(1), 7–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aula.2015.03.003
Sánchez‐Elvira, Á., López‐González, M. Á., & Fernández‐Sánchez, M. V. (2011). Análisis de las competencias genéricas en los nuevos títulos de grado del EEES en las universidades españolas. REDU. Revista de Docencia Universitaria, 8(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.4995/redu.2010.6217
03. Curriculum Innovation
Poster
International STEM Education Research Hotspots and Development Frontiers --Citespace-based bibliometric analysis
Zhen Li, Xiaohong Li
Beijing Normal University, China, People's Republic of
Presenting Author: Li, Zhen
STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) education emphasizes interdisciplinary integrated learning oriented to real-world problem solving, which helps to cultivate students' inquiry ability, innovation ability, critical thinking and other core literacies required by future society, and is widely considered by the international community as the next generation of innovative education paradigm. The development of STEM education and the cultivation of STEM professionals are crucial for improving national core competitiveness, and countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Finland have launched national-level education policies and plans to increase investment in the construction of the STEM education field. Since 2016, when the Ministry of Education included the exploration of STEM education in the 13th Five-Year Plan of Education Informatization, STEM education has been flourishing in China.In recent years, STEM education research has been booming, and tracking and critiquing the latest international research results can help clarify the dynamic hotspots and future development directions of STEM education research. This study uses Citespace bibliometric software to examine the English-language STEM education literature from 2002 to 2022, and to sort out the current development of international STEM education research in order to better grasp the research hotspots and development directions of STEM education.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedCitespace is a visual bibliometric software written in Java language, developed by Mei-Chao Chen of Drexel University and Dalian University of Technology, which integrates co-occurrence analysis, co-citation analysis, cluster analysis, cooperative network analysis, etc. It can visualize the intrinsic complex relationships among knowledge units and reveal the development trend and frontier hotspots of a certain field.This study uses Citespace to quantitatively analyze the key words, countries/regions, and cited literature of the literature, and conducts content analysis in conjunction with the text of literature titles and abstracts to provide an in-depth description of the research lineage, research hotspots, and dynamic trends of international STEM education.
International literature from WOS core collection: TS indicates topic, (TS="STEM education" OR TS="STEAM education" OR TS="integrated STEM education" OR TS="STEM integration"), 3583 documents were retrieved, refinement basis: time 2002-2022, document type: thesis OR online publication OR review paper, 2220 remaining after refinement, 1944 remaining after data cleaning and weight reduction, finally, 1939 documents are available for visualization research.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or Findings1. Current status of STEM education research development
① Analysis of the number of articles issued
this study counted the number of papers published year by year based on the number of literature from 2002 to 2022, and the number of literature showed an increasing trend year by year, indicating that the researchers' attention to this field increased year by year.
②Author collaboration network analysis
From the author collaboration network diagram, 11 major collaboration networks were analyzed in the included literature. Among them, the most influential group is Gillian Roehrig's team from the University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, USA, with 17 annual publications.
2. Analysis of Hot spots of STEM education research
The current major research hotspots can be divided into the following seven categories: literature on the integrative understanding of STEM education. research on the concept of STEAM education and the integration of STEM in art education. research on STEM teachers' conceptions and professional competence development. issues on the influencing factors of STEM education and its mechanisms. issues on STEM education evaluation/curriculum evaluation. Topics related to female participation in STEM careers/equity in STEM education. Theoretical research on the challenges and challenges encountered in STEM education.
3. Analysis of Frontiers of STEM Education Research
it was found that international STEM education development frontiers include STEM teacher professional development and training, students' STEM learning expectations and interests, STEM education participation of disadvantaged groups, new technologies empowering STEM education practices, approaches and methods of STEM education teaching, STEM education research The seven aspects of STEM education development include professional development of STEM teachers, students' expectations and interests in STEM learning, participation of disadvantaged groups in STEM education, new technology-enabled STEM education practices, STEM education teaching methods and approaches, STEM education research methods empirical, evaluation and assessment of STEM education effects.
ReferencesChen Yue, Chen Chaomei, Liu Zelin, Hu Zhigang, Wang Xianwen Citespace.Methodological functions of knowledge graphs[J]. Scientology Research, 2015, 33 (02) : 242-253.
Wolf, V., Hsiao, V., Rodriguez, B., Min, A., Mayorga, J., & Ashcroft, J. (2020). Utilization of Remote Access Electron Microscopes to Enhance Technology Education and Foster STEM Interest in Preteen Students. Research in Science Education, 1-18.
Kelley, T. R., & Knowles, J. G. (2016). A conceptual framework for integrated STEM education. International Journal of STEM education, 3(1), 1-11.
Perignat, E., & Katz-Buonincontro, J. (2019). STEAM in practice and research: An integrative literature review. Thinking skills and creativity, 31, 31-43.
Estapa, Anne (2017) Supporting integrated stem in the elementary classroom: a professional development approach centered on an engineering design challenge. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF STEM EDUCATION DOI 10.1186/s40594-017-0058-3.
Roehrig, G.H., Dare, E.A., Ring-Whalen, E. et al. Understanding coherence and integration in integrated STEM curriculum.IJ STEM Ed 8, 2 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-020-00259-8.
Rodger W.Bybee. The BSCS 5E Instructional Model Origins and Effectiveness [EB/OL](2006-06-12）[2022-04-16]. https://bscs.org/sites/default/ files/_media/ about/downloads/ BSCS_5E_Full_Report.pdf
National Research Council. (2011). Successful K-12 STEM education. Identifying efective approaches in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. TheNational Academies Press.
Bybee, R. (2013). The case of STEM education: Challenges and opportunities.Arlington: NSTA Press.
English, L. D., King, D., & Smeed, J. (2017). Advancing integrated STEM learning through engineering design: Sixth-grade students’ design and construction of earthquake resistant buildings. Journal of Educational Research, 110(3), 255–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2016.1264053.
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