02. Vocational Education and Training (VETNET)
Paper
The Impact of Dual Apprenticeship (dVET) Transfer on Young People: The Case of the Mexican Model of Dual Training
Ellen Vanderhoven
University of Glasgow, United Kingdom
Presenting Author: Vanderhoven, Ellen
Apprenticeships have emerged as a major European policy model. Based on the resurgence of global interest in TVET and the economic success of German-speaking countries in Europe, apprenticeships – particularly dual models of TVET (dVET) – have been positioned as a route to improved productivity, economic growth, social inclusion, and more. The European Union (EU) has become one of the most active proponents of apprenticeships and dVET (Martínez-Izquierdo and Torres Sánchez, 2022), promoting policy adoption and harmonisation across Member States, but also globally via its collaboration with international organisations such as the OECD and ILO (OECD, 2014), and via bilateral cooperation agencies such as the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ). GIZ has been particularly active in driving dVET adoption in the Global South, including in Mexico, which launched the Modelo Mexicano de Formación Dual (MMFD - Mexican Model of Dual Training) in 2013.
Despite this concentration of activity around dual apprenticeship policy promotion, evidence about how such programmes function outside of ‘donor’ contexts (particularly Germany, Austria, and Switzerland) is limited. Previous research has focused on the question of how/in what way to use dVET as a model for policy borrowing (Gonon, 2014) or assessing the barriers and successes of implementation from an institutional perspective (Valiente and Scandurra, 2017). By contrast, this paper explores the research question how does policy transfer of dVET impact young policy participants? Using the MMFD as a case study, the paper explores the motivations, aspirations, and goals of dual students in Mexico, as well as the strategies they employ to achieve those ends and navigate their dVET experiences. Longitudinal study supports examination of the evolution and adjustment of young people’s perspectives over time and captures the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic and ensuing economic crisis on post-dVET youth transitions.
The paper takes a particular interest in how and why different young people end up on pathways that diverge from each other and their own initial expectations. The negotiation of decision-making processes is examined as a highly contextualised phenomenon, mediated by young people’s differing identities, beliefs, agencies, and access to resources. An emphasis on TVET as a means of pursuing social justice and holistic personal and human development is used to challenge the dominance of human capital and productivist discourses in this field and instead highlight the importance of young people’s agency and life projects contextualised within diverse and overlapping structural constraints.
As a result, the study is able to shed light on how inequalities of different kinds interact with and are impacted by dVET programmes operating outside of ‘donor’ contexts. These findings have important relevance for European and TVET actors interested in the implementation and transfer of (dual) apprenticeship programmes in new contexts, particularly as they are firmly centred on the views and experiences of young people who have previously been underrepresented in dVET transfer research. Greater awareness of how dVET programmes interact with socio-cultural and economic contexts that do not share a historical path dependency with dual institutional structures can inform more effective and equitable dVET policy-making and, indeed, invite critical reflection on the suitability of dVET programmes for diverse non-donor contexts in Europe and globally.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedThe study follows the dVET transitions of 16 young people living in Coahuila, Mexico. This qualitative longitudinal research (QLR) project comprises three waves of semi-structured interviews (n=48) conducted between February 2020 and February 2022. Each interview point corresponds to a ‘critical juncture’ related to education and work, namely: approaching graduation; immediate post-graduation period; one year or more after graduation. More broadly, these moments of choice and change are structured by a variety of institutions and contexts surrounding young people, extending from global economic conditions, to national public health restrictions, to regional structuring of education transitions, to familial and personal changes in circumstance.
The longitudinal and, thus, very personal nature of the research valorises young people’s own understandings, giving extended space and time to their thoughts and reflections and offering the opportunity for growth, change, and re-reflection on relevant themes. QLR with young people offers substantial opportunities to develop knowledge about dVET policy transfer, enabling us “to explore subjectivities within crossnational approaches, illuminating the intersections between structural factors and individual lives in time” (Morrow and Crivello, 2015: 268).
The sample of MMFD students (n=16) aimed for gender balance (m=9, f=7) and sectoral diversity (industrial=11, services=5), although the overrepresentation of industrial specialisms reflected the service offer of the schools and the local economic/labour profile. Interviews were semi-structured and in each wave explored i) current experiences and circumstances (work, education, personal); ii) narration of decision-making processes; iii) expectations, aspirations, and life plans; and iv) assessment of the MMFD programme and recommendations for change. Wave 1 particularly emphasised young people’s journeys to participation in dVET, while Waves 2 and 3 explored transition and identity formation in greater depth, as well as impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic. Wave 1 interviews were conducted on vocational school campuses in Coahuila, with later interviews conducted via Zoom at times of travel restrictions. Ethical approval was granted by the University of Glasgow School of Education Ethics Committee.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThree primary themes in young people’s experiences are explored (analysis ongoing). Firstly, gender is a defining feature of dVET experiences for MMFD students. Young women face gendered barriers to their access, participation, and outcomes in dVET that materially affect their personal and professional development relative to their male counterparts and their own high aspirations. This can alter young women’s gender consciousness and self-identity as they face discrimination and processes of gender socialisation. As apprentices’ educational transitions intertwine with their entry into young adulthood, the gendered roles of familial, social, and economic participation become increasingly relevant to their decision-making and shape the effects that dVET participation can have on their lives.
Secondly, although MMFD students are typically viewed as a (low status) socio-economically homogenous group, class-based differences in access to social and economic capital mediate young people’s post-dVET transitions. In particular, in a context of economic crisis and substantial disruption of young people’s life plans, important differences in habitus allow some young people to more confidently pursue their aspirations, while others must focus on the immediate needs of their families and become drawn into reproductive cycles of informality and precarity, counter to the formalising aims of dual training.
Finally, the results highlight the importance of time as a facet of the broader political economy context of dVET transitions. Despite claims about the crisis resilience that dVET can offer national economies, being young and experiencing transition/vulnerability at times of crisis is of fundamental consequence to young people’s onward trajectories and life experiences.
Despite this, the MMFD, like many transferred dVET programmes, does not take account of how gender, class, and crisis conditions mediate the impacts of the programme. Doing so undermines the aims and effectiveness of the intervention expressed by young people and in policy discourses, and risks exacerbating inequalities.
ReferencesAvis, J., & Atkins, L. (2017). Youth Transitions, VET and the ‘Making’ of Class: Changing theorisations for changing times?. Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 22(2), 165-185.
Colley, H., James, D., Diment, K., & Tedder, M. (2003). Learning as becoming in vocational education and training: class, gender and the role of vocational habitus. Journal of vocational education and training, 55(4), 471-498.
Gonon, P. (2014). Development Cooperation in the Field of Vocational Education and Training – The Dual System as a Global Role Model? In: Maurer, M. & Gonon, P. (Eds.) The Challenges of Policy Transfer in Vocational Skills Development: National Qualifications Frameworks and the Dual Model of Vocational Training in International Cooperation. New York, NY: Peter Lang AG.
Lamamra, N. (2017). Vocational Education and Training in Switzerland: A Gender Perspective: From Socialisation to Resistance. Educar, 53(2), pp 379-396.
Lehmann, W. (2012). Youth apprenticeships in Canada: Context, structures and apprentices’ experiences. In: Pilz, M. (Ed.) The future of vocational education and training in a changing world, 25-41.
Lopez-Fogues, A. (2016). A social justice alternative for framing post-compulsory education: a human development perspective of VET in times of economic dominance. Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 68(2), 161-177.
Maitra, S. & Maitra, S. (2021). Training to be Entrepreneurial: Examining Vocational Education Programmes for Young Women in Industrial Training Institutes (ITI) in Kolkata. In: Eigenmann, P., Gonon, P. & Weil, M. (Eds.) Opening and Extending Vocational Education. Berlin, Germany: Peter Lang.
Martínez-Izquierdo, L. & Torres Sánchez, M. (2022). Dual Vocational Education and Training Systems’ Governance Model and Policy Transfer: The Role of the European Union in its Diffusion. Social Sciences, 11(9), 403.
Miranda, A., & Alfredo, M. A. (2022). Transitions in the post-pandemic COVID-19 context: building youth policies in the Global South. Journal of Applied Youth Studies, 1-15.
Morrow, V. & Crivello, G. (2015). What is the value of qualitative longitudinal research with children and young people for international development? International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 18(3), 267-280.
OECD. (2014). Quality Apprenticeships for Giving Youth a Better Start in the Labour Market, G20-OECD-EC Conference [Online]. https://www.oecd.org/g20/topics/employment-and-social-policy/quality-apprenticeships-youth-conference.htm. Accessed 18th January 2023].
Valiente, O. & Scandurra, R. (2017). Challenges to the Implementation of Dual Apprenticeships in OECD Countries: A Literature Review. In: Pilz, M. (ed.) Vocational Education and Training in Times of Economic Crisis. New York, NY: Springer.
02. Vocational Education and Training (VETNET)
Paper
Dual Apprenticeships of German Family Companies in Central and Eastern Europe: Status and perspectives
Michael Gessler, Susanne Peters
Universität Bremen, Germany
Presenting Author: Gessler, Michael;
Peters, Susanne
The training and continuing education of their own employees has a long tradition in German family companies. Today, family businesses provide more than 60 percent of all jobs in Germany, 80 percent of training positions (Langenscheidt & May 2020, p. 12) and more than 70 percent of family businesses are active in the area of continuing education (Stiftung Familienunternehmen, 2022b). The interest in training and continuing education will not weaken in the future, but rather continue to strengthen: For 95 percent of next-generation family entrepreneurs (NextGens), employee training and development is a top priority (PwC, 2020).
Due to the great importance of family businesses for Germany as a business location, we will focus below on this particular form of enterprise. To distinguish between family businesses and non-family businesses, we use the definition of the European Commission (European Commission, 2009). Due to their economic importance, family businesses shape the image of the German economy abroad. By way of illustration, the five largest German family businesses are (1) Volkswagen AG, (2) Robert Bosch GmbH, (3) Schwarz Gruppe (Lidl, Kaufland), (4) Fresenius Gruppe and (5) Continental AG (Die Deutsche Wirtschaft, 2022).
The involvement of German companies abroad has already been the subject of several studies in order to capture the phenomenon of the transfer of vocational training at the meso level in the corporate context. For example, studies are available from the United States (Gessler, 2017), South Africa (Peters, 2019), and China, Mexico, and India (Pilz & Wiemann, 2021). The generally existing training engagement of German companies abroad is furthermore of interest, because although the engagement is local, it can have the potential of a systemic effect at regional and national level (Wiemann & Fuchs, 2018).
It is striking that there are no studies on the training activities of German companies in Central and Eastern Europe, even though these countries are of great economic importance for Germany (DeStatis, 2022): Poland, for example, follows directly behind the USA in terms of imports with rank 4 and exports to the Czech Republic (rank 11) are higher than exports to, for example, Korea (rank 18), Japan (rank 20), Mexico (rank 22), India (rank 23) and South Africa (rank 31).
Our research questions are: To what extent are German family companies already involved in in-company training at their branches in Central and Eastern Europe? What obstacles do these companies face on the ground and what prospects do they see for their further involvement in training?
Our study shows what contribution major German family businesses are already making to dual training and continuing vocational training in selected countries in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) and what opportunities as well as obstacles and resulting need for action exist to improve training and continuing vocational training locally. The study focuses on countries that are of great importance to the German export industry: Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria and Serbia. A particular focus is on industrial-technical training occupations.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources Used(1) Document analysis: In seven country studies (Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria and Serbia), the systemic framework conditions as presented in the database "VET in Europe" (CEDEFOP) were first analyzed. (2) Survey: In a second step, major German family businesses were surveyed online (N=193) about the actual status and their perspectives. (3) Case Studies: The concrete training practice on site was examined in more detail in four case studies. For this pur-pose, eight guided interviews were conducted with school and company representatives.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsIn Germany, German family businesses benefit from the dual training system, which enables companies to align training with operational needs and to qualify skilled workers who fit the company both professionally and socially. Skilled workers form the backbone of the German economy.
In Central and Eastern Europe, the situation is even more explosive: On the one hand, there is also a massive shortage of skilled workers. On the other hand, the training of skilled workers does not solve the shortage, but rather exacerbates the problem: Vocational training in Central and Eastern Europe is generally the responsibility of the schools and is detached from the needs of the companies. The lack of quality and attractiveness, in turn, result in high-achieving stu-dents migrating to general education and then to higher education, which further exacerbates the shortage of skilled workers.
This trend is being countered by political reforms: For example, dual apprenticeship options were enshrined in law in six of the seven focused countries: Hungary (2011), Bulgaria (2015), Slovakia (2015), Poland (2016), Romania (2016) and Serbia (2017). These positive develop-ments are supported by a European policy that has been promoting the apprenticeship concept for a decade, by the existing political will for reform on the ground (Tūtlys et al., 2022) and by the commitment of the companies providing training, among which the German family busi-nesses occupy a particularly prominent position: 73.6 percent of the family businesses surveyed are currently already providing training in Central and Eastern Europe. Major German family businesses are therefore far more committed to training in Central and Eastern Europe than the national average (around 30 to 40 percent). Another positive aspect is that 74.1 percent of fami-ly businesses are promoting local training because they want to assume social responsibility.
ReferencesDeStatis – Statistisches Bundesamt. (2022). Rangfolge der Handelspartner im Außenhandel. URL: https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Wirtschaft/Aussenhandel/Tabellen/rangfolge-handelspartner.html, last accessed: November 14, 2022.
Die Deutsche Wirtschaft (2022). Die 30 größten Arbeitsgeber der Familienunternehmen. https://die-deutsche-wirtschaft.de/die-zehn-groessten-arbeitgeber/, last accessed: November 14, 2022.
European Commission. (2009). Overview of family-business-relevant issues: Research, net-works, policy measures and recent studies. URL: https://ec.europa.eu/docsroom/documents/10388/, last accessed: November 14, 2022.
Gessler, M. (2017). Educational transfer as transformation: A case study about the emergence and implementation of dual apprenticeship structures in a German automotive transplant in the United States. Vocations and Learning, 10(1), 71–99. URL: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-016-9161-8, last accessed: November 14, 2022.
Langenscheidt, F., & May, P. (2020). Vorwort der Herausgeber. In F. Langenscheidt & P. May (Hrsg.), Lexikon der Deutschen Familienunternehmen (pp. 12–15). Springer. URL: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-31847-5, last accessed: November 14, 2022.
Peters, S. (2019). Betrieblicher Transfer beruflicher Bildung: Fallbeispiel Südafrika. In M. Gessler, M. Fuchs, & M. Pilz (Eds.), Konzepte und Wirkungen des Transfers Dualer Berufs-ausbildung (pp. 321–357). Springer. URL: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-23185-9, last accessed: November 14, 2022.
Pilz, M., & Wiemann, K. (2021). Does dual training make the world go round? Training models in German companies in China, India and Mexico. Vocations and Learning, 14(1), 95–114. URL: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-020-09255-z, last accessed: November 14, 2022.
PwC PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2020). NextGens in Familienunternehmen: Ambitioniert, moti-viert und qualifiziert. URL: https://www.pwc.de/de/mittelstand/nextgen-survey-2019-executive-summary.pdf, last accessed: November 14, 2022.
Stiftung Familienunternehmen (2022). Fachkräftemangel aus Unternehmenssicht: Auswirkun-gen und Lösungsansätze. Jahresmonitor der Stiftung Familienunternehmen – erstellt vom ifo Institut – Leibniz Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung an der Universität München e.V., München 2022
The World Bank (2022). Enterprise surveys: What business experience. https://www.enterprisesurveys.org/en/enterprisesurveys, last accessed: November 14, 2022.
Tūtlys, V., Markowitsch, J., Winterton, J., & Pavlin, S. (Eds.). (2022). Skill formation in Cent-ral and Eastern Europe: A search for patterns and directions of development. Peter Lang.
Wiemann, J., & Fuchs, M. (2018). The export of Germany’s “secret of success” dual technical VET: MNCs and multiscalar stakeholders changing the skill formation system in Mexico. Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society, 11(2), 373–386. https://doi.org/10.1093/cjres/rsy008, last accessed: November 14, 2022.
02. Vocational Education and Training (VETNET)
Paper
Same Degree, Different Labour Market Opportunities? Experimental Evidence on Signalling Effects of School Types in the Selection of Apprenticeship Applicants
Benjamin Schimke, Claudia Schuchart
University of Wuppertal, Germany
Presenting Author: Schimke, Benjamin
Education pays off. Many international studies show that more education also means better labour market opportunities (e.g. Psacharopoulos and Patrinos, 2004). However, some findings suggest that, given the same level of education, it also depends on which education is invested in (Birkelund et al., 2021). This is particularly relevant for Germany, where the educational system is an “archetype” (Schindler, 2017) of a strongly stratified system (as well as Austria and Czechia) and the assignment to different educational tracks is conducted at an early age. In order to correct school type decisions once they have been made, there is a wide range of ‘alternative pathways’ at upper secondary level. Catching up on school certificates, mainly higher education entrance qualifications (HEEQ), is particularly possible at vocationally oriented schools (Schuchart, 2013). On average, pupils in these school types perform worse compared to similar pupils from general schools (Trautwein, 2007). Nevertheless, alternative pathways typically provide vocational knowledge in a certain field (e.g. ‘Health’ or ‘Economy’), although they do not award vocational degrees. For instance, a lower secondary level graduate with an intermediate certificate (IC) can catch up on a HEEQ at upper secondary level and meanwhile obtain some basic knowledge in a vocational field.
Our general research question is connected to labour market opportunities that arise with these qualifications: Does the attainment of school-leaving certificates via vocational schools lead to similar opportunities as their acquisition in the general school system? Recent research has shown that general education pathways to school-leaving certificates seem to lead to higher labour market returns than alternative pathways (Heckman et al., 2006; Schuchart and Schimke, 2019). However, this research has at least two weaknesses: First, it is unclear whether these findings are due to self-selection or selection by employers. To address this point, we focus on the demand side of labour and analyse potential selection. We are interested in hiring processes at entry level positions on the labour market. Although, we focus on Germany the results are at least transferable to countries with dual vocational training systems (e.g. Austria, Denmark and Switzerland), where employers decide on who to hire for apprenticeships (Poulsen and Eberhardt, 2016).
Second, previous research has not explicitly taken into account the significance of acquiring basic professional knowledge with the attainment of a school-leaving certificate. Since a general school-leaving certificate is also acquired at vocationally oriented schools, graduates are free to apply for vocational training programs that are within the scope of the basic vocational knowledge they have already attained or not. In the former case, this could mean a great advantage also over graduates with the same school-leaving certificate but from general education schools, in the latter this would not be the case. To develop more precise assumptions, we draw on screening (Arrow, 1973; Stiglitz, 1975) and queuing theory (Thurow, 1975). According to these theories, different paths to the same educational degree could be associated with differing signalling effects. Hiring is always an uncertain investment and therefore employers are most likely to decide for applicants who are expected to have the lowest training costs. Based on these arguments, we derive the following hypotheses:
H1: Graduates with a HEEQ from vocationally oriented schools who obtain basic knowledge in a similar vocational field to the training occupation are more likely to be invited to vocational training interviews than general school graduates with the same school-leaving certificates.
H2: General school graduates with a HEEQ are more likely to be invited to vocational training interviews than graduates from vocationally oriented schools with the same school-leaving certificate but without specific vocational knowledge.
Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedOur study is based on a discrete choice experiment (DCE) (Street and Burgess, 2007). The DCE was conducted in January 2023 with German HR professionals who hire applicants for apprenticeships in at least one of 10 occupations. These occupations were selected to represent 1.) professions, where apprentices typically have HEEQ and 2.) are quantitatively important on the German labour market. The sample was generated by collecting HR professional’s contact information from real job advertisements posted on the employment agency’s website between January 2022 and 2023.
Each respondent was confronted with three choice decisions. They were asked to select the most promising out of three candidates (opt-out alternative was also presented) for a vocational training interview invitation in the profession they have hiring expertise. Different studies on determinants of hiring have shown the validity of this measurement (e.g. Humburg and van der Velden, 2015) and the methodology of in-lab experiments is also known to represent real world behaviour (Petzold and Wolbring, 2019; Hainmueller et al., 2015).
Information on each applicant was experimentally varied and included gender, age, migration background, educational attainments (IC and HEEQ, results for IC are not reported) combined with educational pathways focusing on different general (Gymnasium or comprehensive schools) and vocationally-oriented schools (‘Fachoberschule’ or ‘Berufliches Gymnasium’) with different vocational fields as well as final grades. In order to take the specific characteristics of the German federal educational system adequately into account, we had to ensure that each respondent is assigned to profiles with correct designations of school types and available vocational fields at the vocationally oriented schools based on the federal state of the HR professional’s workplace. The final sample consists of 1,329 respondents who made 3,839 decisions on 11,517 profiles.
The experiment is structurally identical for all 10 occupations. The DCE profiles was built on a fraction of vignettes from a population of 1092 profiles (2^2*3*7*13) (DB-error: 0.219). The final DCE contains 270 profiles that were experimentally selected and also experimentally assigned to 90 choice sets, which subsequently have been split into 30 blocks. Each respondent is randomly assigned to one block and the three choice sets of a block as well as the three profiles within a choice set are presented in a random order. The design was constructed using the R package ‘idefix’ (Traets et al., 2020). Analyses are conducted using Stata 17 and multilevel logit models with random intercepts.
Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsMain findings for the DCE match theoretical considerations. Graduates from vocationally oriented schools that lead to general HEEQ (‘Berufliches Gymnasium’) and provide basic vocational knowledge in a field that is related to the vocational training program, are most often invited to interviews. Compared to graduates from general schools with the same educational degree, these profiles significantly stand out by 17.9 percentage points against graduates from Gymnasium and 24.9 p. p against those from comprehensive schools. Analogous results can be stated for graduates from ‘Fachoberschulen’ which provide specific HEEQ for universities of applied sciences. Both findings support H1.
The results to test H2 illustrate the value of basic vocational knowledge regarding hiring of apprentices. Compared to vignettes with HEEQ from the general educational system, the same degree from vocationally oriented schools providing unrelated vocational knowledge is strongly devalued. The average marginal effect for invitation is reduced by 25.3 p. p. compared to the Gymnasium and 18.3 p. p. in contrast to graduates from comprehensive schools. The above mentioned analogies for graduates from ‘Fachoberschulen’ are also reproduced and support H2.
All findings are also in line with results that show the importance of occupation-specific human capital for hiring indicating lower training costs (e.g. Humburg and van der Velden, 2015). Simultaneously, the results shed light on open research questions regarding educational inequalities and labor market opportunities. Pupils in vocationally oriented schools perform worse compared to similar pupils from general schools and these educational paths are more often followed by children from educationally disadvantaged social groups (Trautwein, 2007). In addition to school-leaving certificates, school types of both the general and vocationally oriented fraction of the educational system seem to play a further role for educational returns. These findings are particularly relevant for educational counselling of pupils and their parents, trainees and students.
ReferencesArrow, K. J. (1973). Higher education as a filter. Journal of Public Economics, 2, 193–216.
Birkelund, J. F., Capsada-Munsech, Q., Boliver, V. and Karlson, K. B. (2021). Lives on track? Long-term earnings returns to selective school placement in England and Denmark. The British Journal of Sociology, 72, 672–692.
Hainmueller, J., Hangartner, D. and Yamamoto, T. (2015). Validating vignette and conjoint survey experiments against real-world behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112, 2395–2400.
Heckman, J. J., Stixrud, J. and Urzua, S. (2006). The effects of cognitive and noncognitive abilities on labor market outcomes and social behavior. Journal of Labor Economics, 24, 411–482.
Humburg, M. and van der Velden, R. (2015). Skills and the graduate recruitment process: Evidence from two discrete choice experiments. Economics of Education Review, 49, 24–41.
Petzold, K. and Wolbring, T. (2019). What can we learn from factorial surveys about human behavior? Methodology, 15, 19–30.
Poulsen, S. B. and Eberhardt, C. (2016). Approaching Apprenticeship Systems from a European Perspective. Bonn.
Psacharopoulos, G. and Patrinos, H. A. (2004). Returns to investment in education: a further update. Education Economics, 12, 111–134.
Schindler, S. (2017). School tracking, educational mobility and inequality in German secondary education. Developments across cohorts. European Societes, 19, 28–48.
Schuchart, C. (2013). Kein Abschluss ohne Anschluss? Durchlässigkeit und Vergleichbarkeit in der Sekundarstufe II. Die Deutsche Schule, 105, 345–363.
Schuchart, C. and Schimke, B. (2019). Lohnt sich das Nachholen eines Schulabschlusses? Alternative Wege zur Hochschulreife und ihre Arbeitsmarkterträge. Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, 71, 237–273.
Stiglitz, J. E. (1975). The theory of "screening," education, and the distribution of income. American Economic Review, 65, 283–300.
Street, D. J. and Burgess, L. (2007). The Construcution of Optimal Stated Choice Experiments. Theory and methods. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Thurow, L. C. (1975). Generating Inequality. Mechanisms of Distribution in the U.S. Economy. New York: Basic Books.
Traets, F., Sanchez, D. G. and Vandebroeck, M. (2020). Generating Optimal Designs for Discrete Choice Experiments in R: The idefix Package. Journal of Statistical Software, 96, 1–41.
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